Research Methods Chapter 1

What are the three main ways of knowing about others?

Authority, Reason/Logical Argument, and Empiricism/direct experience.

What is a problem associated with relying on authority as a way of knowing?

Authorities can be wrong.

What is the role of reason in the process of knowing?

It uses logical arguments to reach consensus but can lead to incorrect assumptions.

What is empiricism in the context of learning?

It is the process of learning through direct observation or experience.

What are some biases that can affect empirical experiences?

Confirmation bias, belief perseverance, and availability heuristic.

What is the assumption of determinism in science?

All natural events can be determined by prior events.

What is the significance of objectivity in the scientific method?

It ensures observations are free from personal bias.

What is the goal of psychological research in terms of description?

To identify regularly occurring sequences of psychological events.

What distinguishes applied research from basic research?

Applied research aims to solve real-world problems, while basic research seeks to understand fundamental phenomena.

What is the difference between laboratory and field research?

Laboratory research offers greater control, while field research provides more realistic settings.

What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative research?

Quantitative research involves statistical analysis, while qualitative research includes narrative descriptions or interviews.

What are the attributes of good theories in psychology?

They should be productive, falsifiable, and parsimonious.

What is the purpose of replication in research?

To confirm findings by reproducing the study's procedures.

What is pseudoscience and how does it differ from true science?

Pseudoscience pretends to be scientific, relies on anecdotal evidence, and avoids falsification.

What is an empirical question?

A question that can be answered through observation and data.

What is the significance of operational definitions in research?

They define variables in terms of specific operations to ensure clarity.

What is the concept of parsimony in scientific explanations?

The simplest explanation is preferred when all other factors are equal.

What are the goals of psychological research?

To describe, predict, explain, and apply findings to improve lives.

What does it mean for a theory to be falsifiable?

It can be shown to be wrong based on data.

What is the role of skepticism in scientific inquiry?

Scientists maintain a skeptical optimism, requiring evidence for claims.

What is the relationship between theory and research?

Hypotheses are derived from theories, and outcomes can support or refute those theories.

What is the importance of data in psychological research?

Data provides the basis for conclusions and helps validate or invalidate theories.

What is a key example of pseudoscience?

Phrenology, which falsely linked skull shapes to personality traits.

How can researchers combat pseudoscience?

By confirming facts, questioning authority, considering multiple hypotheses, and using data.

What is the significance of the phrase 'skeptical optimists' in psychology?

It reflects the balance of hope for discovering truths while demanding empirical evidence.

What is the role of passion in psychological research?

Passion drives curiosity and systematic approaches to research, as seen in notable psychologists.

Experience

Can be biased by social cognition (belief perseverance, availability heuristic, confirmation bias).

Authority

Experts can be wrong.

Reason / A priori

Logic alone is not enough without data.

Scientific thinking

Systematic, objective, empirical evidence-based.

Science

Uses systematic observations.

Pseudoscience

Pretends to be scientific.

Phrenology

Skull bumps → personality (disproven by Flourens).

Graphology

Handwriting → personality (fails proper testing).

Describe

Identify patterns of behavior (what happens?).

Predict

Laws/regularities to forecast behavior (what will happen?).

Explain

Determine causes (why does it happen?).

Apply

Use findings to improve lives.

Empirical question

Answerable through data (e.g., 'Does religious attendance affect stress levels?').

Law in psychology

Regular, predictable relationship between phenomena.

Determinism vs. Discoverability

Behavior is caused by factors, and we can find those causes.

Skeptical optimists

Hopeful about discovering truths but require evidence.

Pavlov

Passion + systematic approach.

Elizabeth Loftus

Loved lab work; practical memory research.

Eleanor Gibson

Visual cliff experiments; overcame sexism, loved discovery.

B. F. Skinner

Operant conditioning; fascination with 'beautiful' data patterns.

Takeaway

Passion + curiosity = essential for psychological research.

Phrenologists sidestepped falsification

Combined faculties to explain anomalies.

Anecdotal evidence

Specific examples/testimonials; problematic because exceptions are ignored.

Psychological law

Regular relationship; used for prediction.