Unit 0 Midterm

Psychodynamic perspective

Explores how unconscious drives, conflicts, and early childhood experiences shape behavior

Behaviorism

Focuses on observable behaviors and how they are learned through interaction with the environment

Humanistic perspective

Emphasizes free will, personal growth, self-actualization, and the importance of feelings

Cognitive perspective

Examines internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, reasoning, and problem-solving

Biological perspective

Studies the physiological bases of behavior, including the brain, nervous system, genetics, and hormones

Evolutionary perspective

Explains behavior and mental processes as adaptations that increase survival and reproduction

Sociocultural perspective

Analyzes how culture, social norms, and social environments influence behavior

Biopsychosocial perspective

Integrates biological, psychological, and social factors to understand behavior and mental processes

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Confirmation bias

The tendency to look for, interpret, or remember information that supports existing beliefs

Hindsight bias

The belief, after an event has occurred, that one knew it would happen

Overconfidence

Having too much faith in one's judgments or abilities

Empirical evidence

Information gained through observation, experimentation, or measurement

Scientific method

A systematic process involving observation, hypothesis formation, data collection, analysis, and conclusions

Hypotheses

Specific, testable predictions about relationships between variables

Falsifiable

A hypothesis that can be tested and potentially proven false

Peer review

Evaluation of research by experts in the field before publication

Replication

Repeating a study to determine whether findings can be consistently observed

Reliability

The consistency of a measure when repeated under similar conditions

Validity

The extent to which a measure accurately assesses what it is intended to measure

American Psychological Association (APA)

A professional organization dedicated to advancing psychology and promoting ethical research and practice

Research design

The overall plan or blueprint for answering a research question

Methodology

The specific techniques and procedures used to collect data

Quantitative data

Numerical data collected from surveys, tests, or experiments

Qualitative data

Non-numerical data that provides detailed insights into experiences and behaviors

Likert scale

A survey scale that measures attitudes or opinions using degrees of agreement

Structured interviews

Interviews that use predetermined questions asked in the same order

Survey technique

A research method that collects self-reported data through questions

Wording effect

When changes in question phrasing influence responses

Social desirability bias

The tendency to give socially acceptable answers rather than honest ones

Naturalistic observation

Observing and recording behavior in real-world settings without interference

Case study

An in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or phenomenon

Correlational research

Examines relationships between variables without manipulating them

Third variable problem

The possibility that an unmeasured variable affects the relationship between two variables

Scatterplot

A visual display showing the relationship between two variables

Correlation coefficient

A numerical value (r) indicating the strength and direction of a relationship

No correlation

No relationship between two variables

Positive correlation

Variables move in the same direction

Negative correlation

Variables move in opposite directions

Experimental method

A research method used to determine cause-and-effect relationships

Independent variable

The variable manipulated by the researcher

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured and affected by the independent variable

Confounding variable

An uncontrolled variable that may affect results

Operational definition

A precise description of how variables are measured or manipulated

Experimental group

The group exposed to the independent variable

Control group

The group not exposed to the independent variable

Random assignment

Assigning participants to groups by chance

Placebo effect

Improvement caused by belief in a treatment rather than the treatment itself

Experimenter bias

When a researcher's expectations influence results

Single-blind study

Participants do not know which group they are in, but researchers do

Double-blind study

Neither participants nor researchers know group assignments

Placebo condition

A control condition in which participants receive a placebo

Sample

A subset of a population used in research

Representative sample

A sample that accurately reflects the population

Random sample

A sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of selection

Sample bias

When a sample does not represent the population accurately

Generalizability

The extent to which results apply to the broader population

Statistics

Mathematical methods used to analyze data

Descriptive statistics

Methods that summarize and describe data

Inferential statistics

Methods used to determine whether results can be generalized

Measures of central tendency

Statistics that describe the center of a distribution

Mean

The average of a set of scores

Median

The middle score in a distribution

Mode

The most frequently occurring score

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores

Normal curve (bell curve)

A symmetrical distribution where most scores cluster around the mean

Regression to the mean

The tendency for extreme scores to move closer to the average

Positive skew

A distribution with a longer tail on the right side

Negative skew

A distribution with a longer tail on the left side

Standard deviation

A measure of how spread out scores are

Percentile rank

Indicates the percentage of scores below a given score

Bimodal distribution

A distribution with two peaks

Statistical significance

The likelihood that results are not due to chance

Effect sizes

Measures of the strength of a relationship or effect

Meta-analysis

A study that combines results from multiple studies

IRBs (Institutional Review Boards)

Committees that review research to ensure ethical standards

Protection from harm

Ethical principle requiring researchers to minimize risk

Informed consent

Participants' agreement after being informed about the study

Confidentiality

Protection of participants' personal information

Deception

Withholding information about a study's true purpose

Confederates

Individuals who assist researchers by acting as participants

Debriefing

Explaining the study's purpose and procedures to participants after participation.