Learning Approaches

Reinforcement

A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated, which can be positive or negative

Stimulus

Anything internal or external that brings about a response

Response

Any reaction in the presence of the stimulus

What are the key assumptions of the behaviourist approach?

All behaviour is learnt from the environment; psychology should study observable behaviour only; learning principles are the same in humans and animals; behaviour shaped through conditioning

Define classical conditioning and give a key study.

Learning by association. Neutral stimulus paired with unconditioned stimulus until it produces a conditioned response. Shown in Pavlov's dogs (1927) - dogs learnt to salivate at the sound of a bell

What are positive and negative punishment?

Positive punishment = adding an undesirable stimulus to decrease a behaviour, negative punishment = removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behaviour

What is punishment?

An unpleasant consequence of behaviour that decreases the likelihood of it being repeated

Define operant conditioning and give a key study.

Learning through consequences (reinforcement and punishment). Shown in Skinner's Rats (1938) - lever pressing was repeated when rewarded with food (positive reinforcement) or shock avoidance (negative reinforcement)

What are positive and negative reinforcements?

Positive reinforcement = receiving a reward for behaviour. Negative reinforcement = removing an unpleasant stimulus by performing behaviour

What are partial and continuous reinforcements?

Continuous = every response reinforced - fast learning, quick extinction. Partial = variable ratio/interval - slower learning, more resistant to extinction

What is a token economy?

A behaviour management system using secondary reinforcers (tokens) that can be exchanged for primary reinforcers (e.g. treats) to increase desirable behaviour

Explain how tokens work as reinforcers.

Tokens have no intrinsic value but gain reinforcing properties by being paired with primary rewards, making them secondary reinforcers

Name and describe a key cognitive model of memory.

Atkinson and Shiffrin's multi store model (1968)

Give an example of cognitive neuroscience in practice.

Lisofsky et al. (2014), found brain regions (e.g. prefrontal cortex) involved in lying, using fMRI/PET

Give one strength and limitation for schemas.

Strength - allows us to process information quickly limitation - may distort reality, leading to stereotypes or misperception

What is the information processing model?

A computer analogy - brain = CPU, encoding = input, memory = storage, behaviour = output

What is cognitive neuroscience?

Scientific study of biological structures underpinning cognition, using brain imaging, like fMRI and PET scans

What does the cognitive approach focus on?

Internal mental processes such as perception, memory, problem solving and attention

What is meant by inference in the cognitive approach?

Drawing conclusions about internal mental processes based on observed behaviour

Define schema.

A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that help organise and interpret information

What are the four mediational processes in SLT?

Attention, retention, reproduction and motivation

Describe Bandura's Bobo doll experiment (1961).

Children observed an aggressive adult model and later imitated the aggressive behaviour towards the Bobo doll, especially if the model is rewarded

What did Bandura and Walters (1963) find?

Children more likely to imitate a model if they saw the model being rewarded

Who developed social learning theory?

Albert Bandura (1960s)

What is vicarious reinforcement?

Learning that occurs by observing the consequences of another person's behaviour

Define imitation and identification.

Imitation = copying behaviour. Identification = adopting behaviour of a role model you admire or feel similar to

Which learning theory is a token economy based on?

Operant conditioning - behaviour strengthened by positive reinforcement

What is meant by "response cost" in a token economy?

Removal of tokens following undesirable behaviour - form of negative reinforcement

Give a key early study supporting token economies.

Ayllon and Azrin (1968) - tokens increased self care and social behaviour in chronic psychiatric patients

Why is immediacy important when giving tokens?

Immediate reinforcement strengthens association between behaviour and reward

Application of token economy principles.

1. T.E. introduced as behaviour modification programme, based on behaviourist principle of operant conditioning

2. Specific target behaviours identified in advance

3. Desirable behaviour = tokens (secondary reinforcer) become reinforcing when paired with rewards

4. Exchange tokens for primary reinforcers

5. This positive reinforcement increases likelihood of desirable behaviours being repeated

6. Tokens removed if rules are broken (response cost), functions as negative punishment

Why might inferences be problematic in cognitive processing?

Indirect - mental processes can't be observed directly, making conclusions potentially abstract

Is the cognitive approach deterministic?

Soft determinist - behaviour influenced by schemas and past experience, but acknowledge active processing

Give one strength of the cognitive approach.

Uses scientific methods (lab experiments, brain imaging), giving reliable, objective data

Give one practical development of the cognitive approach.

Development of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) for depression and other disorders

What is a limitation of using the computer analogy?

Machine reductionism - oversimplifies human cognition, ignoring emotions and motivation

How does biology challenge SLT?

Boys showed more aggression than girls in Bandura's study - may be due to biological factors (testosterone), not just social learning

Is SLT deterministic or not?

Supports reciprocal determinism - behaviour both influences and is influenced by the environment, allowing for some free will

Give one strength of SLT compared to Behaviourism.

Recognises the role of cognitive processes (mediational factors), providing a more complete explanation of learning

How does SLT explain cultural differences in behaviour?

Norms and behaviour transmitted through observing role models (e.g. gender roles)

Give one weakness of SLT research.

Bandura's Bobo doll studies were lab based and may have suffered demand characteristics (children thinking aggression expected)

Give one limitation of the behaviourist approach.

It ignored mental processes - seen as too reductionist because it reduces behaviour to simple S-R links

How does determinism apply to behaviourism?

Environmentally deterministic, suggesting behaviour is fully shaped by conditioning, ignoring free will

Give one practical strength of token economies.

Provide structure and objective method to manage behaviour with clear, measurable criteria

Give one strength of the behaviourist approach.

It uses highly controlled lab experiments, which makes it scientific and replicable. Credited with establishing psychology as a science

How has the behaviourist approach been applied in real life?

Behavioural therapies such as systematic desensitization for phobias and token economies in prison

Why are animal studies in behaviourism criticised?

Ethical issues (stress, harm) and limited generalisability to complex human behaviour