PSY338 Abnormal Child Psychology Midterm 1

psychological disorder

pattern of behavioral, cognitive, emotional, and/or physical symptoms in an individual

what are the 3 features of psychological disorders?

1. distress (to oneself or others)

2. impairment/limitations in functioning (impairs a child's ability to develop and get what they need from their environment)

3. increased risk of further suffering/harm

what should be kept in mind when thinking about psychological disorders in children?

children express features of disturbance in different ways

• parents are always part of the equation

developmental psychopathology

approach to describing/studying disorders of childhood, adolescence, and beyond

emphasizes the importance of developmental processes and tasks

acknowledges that we all experience the same environment in different ways & that disorders present differently in children than adults

what are the 5 features that defines what is "abnormal" for a child?

1. dysfunctional behavior (impairment in adaptive functioning)

2. exaggeration of normal emotions/behaviors/cognitive processes

3. poor adaptation to the environment

4. impairment in developmental progress

5. deviations from the norm

exaggeration of normal behaviors/emotions/cognitions (defining "abnormality" in children)

emotions are normal, but if they're experienced in excess or too little, then it's abnormal and can signal psychopathology

is the brain fixed as it develops?

no; it's malleable

e.g. if a child has to constantly be hypervigilant, they will be hypervigilant in adulthood and can develop of an anxiety disorder

what happens if a body has too many stress hormones?

they are neurotoxic; they wreak havoc on parts of the brain

developmental pathways

the sequence and timing of particular behaviors and possible relationships between behaviors over time

an active and dynamic process and shaped by the environment/people around (e.g. throwing a tantrum -> parents react with frustration -> frustration stays in a cycle between the kid and parents)

psychologists analyze developmental pathways to determine where/how disorders arose in children

developmental tasks

key skills that arise at certain developmental stages in a person's life

can be used to understand if a child is doing well developmentally

what are the developmental tasks for infants/preschoolers?

caregiver attachment, language, differentiating oneself from the environment

what are the developmental tasks for middle childhood?

self control, compliance, getting along with peers, academic achievement, etc.

what are the developmental tasks for adolescents?

successful transition into secondary schooling, involvement in extracurricular activities, defining a sense of self, forming close friendships, etc.

competence

ability to successfully adapt in an environment

impacts achievement of developmental tasks and should be considered when looking at children

risk factors

variables that precede a negative outcome of interest

can include family history, temperament, attachment style, economic status, etc.

protective factors

personal/situational variables that lessens the likelihood of developing a disorder

resilience

the ability to fight off/recover from misfortune

a protective factor & is dynamic (can change over time)

gets stronger with healthy relationships + authoritative parenting

what are the 3 assumptions in developmental psychopathology?

1. abnormal deviation is multiply determined (no single factor causes a disorder)

2. the child and the environment influence one another and are interdependent

3. pathways leading to disorders are numerous and interactive

how many people have mental health problems?

1 in 5, or 20%

how many people who have mental health problems are comorbid?

40%

why is it important to study developmental psychopathology?

because a lot of people suffer from mental health problems and many are comorbid

disorders also have a serious impact on the quality of life of the person affected and society as a whole (a dysfunctional person can't contribute to society)

which one is it: nature or nurture?

both interact to shape behavior (genes, environment, and other influences)

a longitudinal study showed that low activity of the MAOA gene and experiencing abuse in childhood made children 9x as likely to be antisocial than children who were abuse and had high MAOA activity

what are some factors that influence children over their lifetime?

prenatal environment

caregiver interactions

stress

further interacting factors (e.g. length and intensity of exposure, biological makeup of the child, environmental support, etc.)

teratogens

harmful environmental agents that a fetus experiences when in utero

the dosage, intensity, duration, and fetus vulnerability all affect the effect of the teratogen

e.g. alcohol -> fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

how does the caregiver influence a child biologically?

when the caregiver responds/interacts with the child, neural connections are formed and strengthened

studies show that nurturing mothers -> larger hippocampi in the children & that neglect -> pronounced brain damage

how does stress influence a child's brain and behavior?

chronic stress affects the amygdala, hippocampus, and PFC (low neural connections) -> problems with emotion regulation and psychopathology

what do labels describe?

the behavior, NOT the person (the disorder should be separated from the child)

labels can lead to stigmatization and affect the child's performance (self fulfilling prophecy)

how did early ideas explain childhood mental disorders?

they were linked to moral failings instead of science

why do multiple theories matter in analyzing abnormal child behavior?

no single theory explains all abnormal child behavior

it's best explained with a multidimensional model with multiple levels of analysis (biological, cultural, social, psychological)

adaptive functioning

a child's ability to adapt to a new environment

expected of all children

executive function

a set of cognitive processes including working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, selective attention, and planning

measured via different tasks based on the child's age and developmental level

go/no-go task (executive functioning)

tests executive functioning, specifically inhibitory control

requires a child to respond to a certain stimulus & inhibit their response to another stimulus

e.g. pressing a button at the green light and not pressing the button at a red light

day-night Stroop task (executive functioning)

tests executive functioning, specifically inhibition

requires a child to say "night" when seeing a picture of a sun and saying "day" when seeing a picture of a moon

can children be diagnosed with personality disorders?

no, since their personalities are still forming

e.g. a child with antisocial behaviors will be diagnosed with conduct disorder not antisocial personality disorder

how does alcohol affect the brain as a teratogen?

it can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome

in some studies, alcohol use during pregnancy is shown to reduce or completely eliminate the corpus callosum

how does stress affect a child as a teratogen?

parental stress is considered a teratogen

studies show that children born to mothers who were under a lot of stress have more conduct problems, controlled for external factors

serve and return

interactions where the caregiver responds and interacts with a child

good shit for a child

lack of these interactions can contribute to psychopathology and shrinks the hippocampus

neural plasticity

the brain is extremely malleable early in life

the earlier and more intense a problem happens in a child's life, the more damage is seen later on (e.g. greater neglect -> greater shrinkage of the hippocampus)

how is a dose-response relationship seen in children and poverty?

the longer a child lives in poverty, the stronger the negative outcomes

how does poverty affect a child?

• less likely to earn a HS diploma

• significant risk for being low SES in the future

• less likely to be employed

how does a child's cumulative vocabulary differ across time and across SES?

at 16 months, children from all SES have similar cumulative vocabularies

however, at 36 months, higher SES kids have over 2x as large of a cumulative vocabulary compared to middle and low SES kids due to access to mental stimulation, better nutrition, healthcare, etc.

temperament

organized style of behavior that appears early in development and shapes a child's approach to their environment

interacts with early socialization to affect emotion regulation

how does cumulative vocabulary vary for children across time and SES?

at 16 months old, kids of all SES have similar cumulative vocabularies

however, at 36 months, kids of higher SES have over 2x as large of a vocabulary than kids of middle and low SES due to access to mental stimulation, healthcare, nutrition, less stress, etc.

shows how SES impacts development for children

what are the 3 types of temperament?

easygoing, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up

easy temperament

characterized by positive affect and approach

slow-to-warm-up temperament

characterized by inhibition

related to better self-control

difficult temperament

characterized by negative affect or irritability

influences how adults interact with difficult temperament kids, leading to emotion dysregulation in the future

does temperament lead to psychopathology?

no; it's not an automatic path

life stress & parents' behavioral inhibition moderate the development of a disorder (shows that early intervention of kids with risk factors/vulnerabilites is key)

e.g. once diagnosed with an anxiety disorder, a kid with a fearful temperament will predict a more persistent course of anxiety

is experiencing stress bad for children?

no; it teaches kids how to deal with stress with the help of their caregivers

however, stronger and consistent stress is bad

what are the 3 different stress responses that result from different impacts?

positive stress responses, tolerable stress respones, and toxic stress responses

positive stress responses

result from brief, mild-moderate stress

with the support of a caregiver

tolerable stress responses

results from atypical stressors that trigger long-lasting responses (e.g. illness, parental conflict, etc.)

caregiver should be able to help in this situation

toxic stress responses

result from continuous, frequent, or strongly activated stress response systems

leads to biological changes that impact development (e.g. lack of neural connections between amygdala and PFC)

lack of support from caregiver to buffer the development of toxic stress responses

what did the study of Denmark males that underwent birth complications and neglect show about biosocial interactions?

it analyzed rates of violent crime of Denmark males who experienced complications at birth and maternal rejection at age 1

it showed that, even tho men who experienced maternal rejection AND birth complications made up only 4.5% of the studied sample, they committed the most amount of violent crime across all participants (18%)

shows that there was a biosocial interaction between birth complications and neglect experienced

which is regulated most by biology over environment: personality characteristics or temperament?

temperament

affect

emotional responses of a person on display (observable emotions)

Goodness of Fit Study, Thomas & Stella Chess 1950s-70s

a longitudinal study of 100 children done to see how temperament shapes development

discovered that goodness of fit affected development most positively

what were the 9 aspects of temperament that Thomas & Stella Chess determined in their temperament longitudinal study in the 1950s-70s?

• activity level

• adaptability

• approach/withdrawal

• attention span/persistence

• distractibility

• intensity of reaction

• quality of mood

• rhythmicality (adherence to schedule)

• threshold of responsiveness (how strong a stimulus has to be to get a reaction out of the kid)

goodness of fit

the level of a match between a child's temperament and the expectations/demands of their environment

a poor fit can lead to behavioral problems, anxiety, or low self-esteem

shows the importance of parents adapting to their child's temperament accordingly

what did Jerome Kogan's longitudinal study in the 1980s show about the persistence of temperament?

he followed kids from 4 months to childhood and found that:

• 18% of fearful temperament babies became fearful kids
• 80% of fearful temperament babies became no longer fearful kids
• none of the fearful temperament babies were completely fearless kids

this shows how temperament doesn't completely go away, but the environment + goodness of fit shapes it

what did Jerome Kogan's study on behavioral inhibition by temperament in the 1970s/80s find?

fearful infants -> high motor activity + distress at 4 months; shy/cautious/at risk for anxiety in childhood

fearless infants -> low motor activity + stress at 4 months; outgoing/sociable/bold in childhood

mixed infants -> moderate reactions at 4 months + varied developmental paths

what do the studies about goodness of fit and environmental influences on temperament show about temperament?

temperament is inborn and influences behavior early in life

however, development imporves with goodness of fit between the environment and the child

what are the 3 temperament dimensions that affect the big 5 personality traits that Rothbart discovered in 2007?

1. surgency/extraversion (high activity, impulsivity, enjoyment of high-intensity activities) -> influences high extraversion

2. negative affectivity (tendency for fear, frustration, discomfort, and sadness) -> influences neuroticism

3. effortful control (ability to focus attention, inhibit impulses, and regulate emotions) -> influences conscientiousness/agreeableness

what are the genetic influences of temperament traits?

activity level: highly heritable

emotional/negative affectivity: moderate-high heritable (irritability, fearfulness, neuroticism)

surgency/extraversion: moderate heritable

effortful control: moderate heritable, more influenced by environment (parenting)

what did fMRI studies show about amygdala reactivity and parents' emotional regulation?

if the child's mother was emotionally regulated:

• absent maternal stimuli -> immature amygdala/PFC connectivity

• present maternal stimuli -> adolescent like amygdala/PFC connectivity

however, the inverse was observed for children of mothers who were emotionally dysfunctional (e.g. anxious/depressed

how do children behave in the prescence of adults?

they regulate their behavior and emotions to avoid making adults angry

this is influenced by their temperament (e.g. increased impulsivity -> less regulation)

what did Goldsmith find out about positive emotionality in his 2010 study?

positive emotionality, or the ability to experience intense/frequent positive emotions, is less heritable than other traits

this shows that, even with a genetic predisposition, the environment can boost or dampen positive emotions

how do peer relationships depend on cognitive development?

forming them requires:

• behavior regulation

• social skills

• emotional regulation

• ability to sense others' emotions

emotion regulation

the enhancement, maintainment, and inhibition of emotional arousal for a specific purpose/goal

core part of temperament, but more shaped by the environment over time

what are some problems that can arise from bad emotion regulation?

• affected academic achievement

• at risk sexual behaviors

• mental health difficulties

• substance use disorders

• violence

how does borderline personality disorder include problems with emotion regulation?

it includes:

• hypersensitivity to threat and negativity in social situations (e.g. automatically expecting someone to hate you)

• hyposensitivity to positive social cues (e.g. interpreting a netural face as threatening)

what did fMRI studies show about amygdala activity and parental emotion regulation?

if the child's mother was emotionally regulated:

• lack of maternal stimuli -> amygdala/PFC connectivity immature

• presence of maternal stimuli -> adolescent level amygdala/PFC connectivity

however, if the child's mother was emotionally dysregulated, the opposite was observed

how do emotional influences guide behavior?

children regulate their emotions to avoid making adults angry

what did Goldsmith's study on positive emotionality in 2010 reveal?

positive emotionality, or the ability to experience frequent/intense positive emotions, is less heritable than other traits

shows how the environment dampens/boosts positive emotions, even with genetic heritability

how do peer relationships require cognitive development?

forming them requires:

• behavioral control

• emotion regulation/ability to notice emotions in others

• social skills

what are the 4 categories of children that were classified from that one study?

1. popular children (15%)

2. neglected children (10%)

3. controversial children (5%)

4. rejected children (15%)

what are the traits of popular children?

many likes + few dislikes

friendly, cooperative, socially skilled

high in effortful control + sociability

what are the traits of neglected children?

few nominations overall

quiet, shy, withdrawn

behaviorally inhibited and low socialbility

what are the traits of controversial children?

many likes + many dislikes

prosocial, but may be aggressive/bossy/disruptive

what are the traits of rejected children?

few likes + many dislikes

aggressive, disruptive, socially awkward

high negative emotionality; low effortful control; bad emotion regulation

what are the 2 subcategories of rejected kids?

withdrawn-rejected (15%)

aggressive-rejected (85%) (these kids develop negative attributional styles)

what are the 3 types of aggression observed in rejected kids?

overt, instrumental, and relational aggression

overt aggression

physical or verbal behavior that directly harms another person

e.g. acting out

instrumental aggression

aggression as a means to some goal other than causing pain; aggression to get what you want

relational aggression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing

e.g. spreading rumors, bullying, calling names, etc.

regina george type shi

how does the PFC influence the amygdala?

the PFC regulates overarousal of the amygdala, and their relationship develops over time

the PFC in children's brains is not developed enough to inhibit an overarousal of the amygdala

amygdala

the part of the brain that responds to threats in the environment

more reactive in children, since they are very sensitive to learning about their environment

heritability

the likelihood that you'll inherit traits from your parents

traits such as IQ, personality, mental disorders, and temperament are all strongly heritable

epigenetics

the environment affects the expression of genetics without changing the genetic material

"genes hold the gun, epigenetics pulls the trigger"

diathesis-stress model

biological vulnerability (diathesis) and environmental stressors (stress) can cause health problems

gene environment correlations

occur when there are genetically influenced differences in exposure to the environment

includes passive, active, and evocative correlations

passive gene-environment correlation

a passive inheritance of a gene + exposure to the environment your parents provide

e.g. a depressed parent passes on the genetic vulnerability of low serotonin to their child + is emotionally withdrawn from the child (passively getting the genetic vulnerability + experiencing the environment)

active gene-environment correlation

a child selects their environment based on genetically influenced traits

e.g. a child with a higher IQ and chooses to study more and take more challenging classes, reinforcing their intelligence (actively choosing an environment based on genes)

evocative gene-environment correlation

a genetically-influenced trait evokes environmental responses from others

e.g. a child with a slow-to-warm-up temperament causes their parents to be impatient with them, reinforcing their reclusive behavior

infant-caregiver attachment

the relationship and emotional bond that occurs between infants and their primary caregivers

crucial to an infant's psychosocial development

attachment behaviors

identified by Mary Ainsworth

these behaviors primarily promote nearness to a specific person

includes signaling (e.g. smiling, crying, vocalizing), orienting/looking, movements related to another person (e.g. following them around), and attempts at physical contact (e.g. clinging)

how does physical contact relate to development?

it's super important to the cognitive and psychosocial development of an infant

lack of physical contact with a child -> child is less likely to reach developmental milestones

Harlow's baby monkeys were shown to prefer a cloth-covered "mother" even if she didn't have food to a wire mother with food (they also ran to the cloth mother in times of stress)

attachment

the ability of an individual too use attachment figures (caregivers) as a secure base from which to explore + a safe haven in times of fear/distress/anger

a healthy attachment is really important early on, or it leads to things like failure to thrive or reactive attachment disorder

what are the caregiver responses that promote attachment?

reciprocity, sensitivity (to the baby's signals), consistence, offering comfort/calm, and enabling feelings of safety

failure to thrive (psychosocial dwarfism)

condition where someone lags behind developmentally in a neglectful environment

stunted physically, cognitively, and socially

however, placing people with psychosocial dwarfism in a nurturing environment can make them quickly rebound