Time Period 4 - 1914-Present, Units 8&9

Militarism

the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests

- Increasing particularly from 1890-1910

- fueled by both increasing industrial production and nationalism

Archduke Franz Ferdinand

heir to Austrian throne and member of Habsburg family

- assassinated on June 28, 1914 during good-will visit to Sarajevo, Bosnia (in Austria-Hungary) by Serbians

- caused Germany and other A-H allies to declare war on Serbia and its allies, which created WWI

Central Powers

World War I alliance of Austria-Hungary, Germany, Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria eventually

Allied Powers (WWI)

World War I alliance of France, Britain, Russia, and the US eventually

Gavrilo Princip

The assassin of Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria, a member of the Black Hand and a Serbian nationalist

Western Front

A line of trenches and fortifications in World War I that stretched without a break through France

- scene of most of the fighting between Germany and France/Britain

Schlieffen Plan

Germany's military plan at the outbreak of WWI

- German troops would move through neutral Belgium to rapidly defeat France with all of their forces and then move east to attack Russia before Russia has time to mobilize

- designed to help Germany avoid a 2-front war (fighting on both east and west)

- fails

Eastern Front

In WWI, the region along the German-Russian Border where Russians and Serbs battled Germans, Austrians, and Turks.

Trench Warfare

A form of warfare in which opposing armies fight each other from trenches dug in the battlefield

- horrible living conditions, unsanitary conditions

- ineffective because there were little territory gains and excessive stalemate

Stalemate

A deadlock in which neither side is able to defeat the other

- WWI is prolonged and unproductive because of trench warfare

- neither side was able to make progress and deaths mounted

Poison Gas

Introduced by the Germans and was used by both sides during the war; caused vomiting, blindness, and suffocation

- gas masks became part of every soldier's equipment

Barbed wires

two twisted strands of wire studded with sharp metal barbs at measured intervals

- set up to protect trenches and prevent enemy soldiers from entering the trench

Tanks

Heavy armored vehicle which could travel over barbed wire and across enemy trenches

- crush anything in their path

U-boats

New submarines used by the Germans in sea warfare to attack British and American supply ships in the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean

- led to sinking of Lusitania in 1915

- unrestricted submarine warfare and aggression towards ships contributed to the US joining the war

Tsar Nicholas II

Last Tsar of Russia and then end of the Romanov line

- deeply unpopular and out of touch with the needs of his people

- mishandled Russia's involvement in WWI and abdicated in 1917

- executed along with the rest of his family in 1918 under the order of Lenin

Armenian Genocide

1915 genocide of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

- Turkey's Muslim rulers feared the Armenian Christian minority and thought they would betray the empire

- over 1 million Armenians died by murder or by hunger/thirst/disease on a forced march to camps in Syria and Iraq

- one of the first genocides of 20th century

Mandate System

a half-way system between outright imperial domination and independence in Africa and the Middle East

- it was used to split Germany's empire after WWI following the loss of their colonies and the division of territories previously controlled by the Ottoman Empire following their fall

- victorious nations like Britain and France would control territories, such as Palestine and Syria

Communism

a political theory derived from Karl Marx, advocating class war (bourgeoisie vs proletariat) and leading to a society in which all property is publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs

- extreme left-wing ideology

- adopted by Bolsheviks in Russian Revolution

Fascism

A far right-wing ideology/government headed by a dictator that calls for extreme nationalism and racism and no tolerance of opposition

- strict regimentation of all industry and commerce

- illusion of real or imagined enemies

- victim mentality and drive to restore "mythic past"

Bolsheviks

Group of revolutionary Russian Marxists who took control of Russia's government in November 1917

- Led by Vladimir Lenin

- origin of modern Communist Party that will control Russia for most of the 20th century

February/March Revolution

First Russian Revolution of 1917

- led to Nicholas II abdicating his throne

- led to the Duma creating the Provisional Government to rule in his place

Provisional Government

A temporary government created by the Duma after the abdication of the tsar in 1917

- made the decision to remain in WWI, costing it the support of the Soviets (worker/peasant councils) and the people

- overthrown by Lenin and the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution

Vladimir Lenin

Leader of the Bolshevik (later Communist) Party

- lived in exile in Switzerland until 1917, then returned to Russia to lead the Bolsheviks to victory during the Russian Revolution and the civil war that followed

- introduced the New Economic Policy in 1921 to revitalize the Russian economy

October Revolution (Bolshevik Revolution)

The second part of the 1917 Russian Revolution led by Vladimir Lenin and his Bolshevik Party

- Lenin believed that the time had come for violent resistance of the proletariat (working class) against the upper classes

- Bolsheviks overthrew the Provisional Government

- Russia was renamed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922

Leon Trotsky

Russian revolutionary intellectual and close adviser to Lenin

- leader of the Bolshevik Revolution (1917), he was later expelled from the Communist Party (1927) and banished (1929) for his opposition to the authoritarianism of Stalin

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

treaty between the new Bolshevik-led Russia and Germany that would end Russia's involvement in WWI in 1918

New Economic Policy (NEP)

Lenin's 1921 plan that permitted some capitalist activity in Russia in order to increase food production and bring stability to Russia

- small-scale private ownership of businesses while government controlled larger industries

Versailles Conference

Name of peace conference held at Versailles after World War I in 1919

- attended by the "Big Four" - United States, Britain, France, and Italy

- Germany was not invited

Woodrow Wilson

American President from 1913-1921 and leading representative at the Versailles Conference

- wanted to avoid humiliation, resentment, and desire for revenge for the losing side

- US did not have many casualties so he did not seek revenge

- supporter of his Fourteen Points plan to secure postwar peace

David Lloyd George

Britain's prime minister at the end of World War I and British delegate at Versailles

- supported making Germans pay for the continent's staggering war losses

- sought revenge alongside France

Georges Clemenceau

French prime minister and delegate at the Versailles Conference

- wanted to ensure that Germany would never again threaten France

- wanted Germany to accept guilt and pay for cost of war

- looking to finally take revenge after humiliating Franco-Prussian war ending and their devastating losses in WWI

Treaty of Versailles

Treaty that ended World War I

- Germany loses territory (like Alsace-Lorraine) as well as overseas colonies

- Demilitarization - army reduced to 100,000 men, air force and U-boats are banned, demilitarization of Rhineland along French border

- War Guilt Clause - Germany forced to accept full responsibility for war

- Reparations - Germany must pay $33B for the damages of war because they are deemed responsible

War Guilt Clause

A provision in the Treaty of Versailles that forced Germany to acknowledge that it alone was responsible for the escalation of WWI

- required the payment of reparations

Weimar Republic

Democratic government established in Germany after the collapse of the German Empire after WWI

- lost almost all public support by late 1920s

- left and right wing groups targeted it as ineffective

- Hitler asserted that the Germany army had been "stabbed in the back" by them

German Hyperinflation of 1923

Response to huge reparations imposed after WWI

- Government responded to reparations by printing more money, which made it worthless

- burning cash was cheaper than buying firewood or coal

League of Nations

Created as part of the Treaty of Versailles based on Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points

- intended to prevent future wars

- US did not join so the League was weak

- Created mandate system for winning nations to take over territory of defeated nations (ex. Britain took control of Palestine)

Dawes Plan of 1924

Loan program created to give money to Germany so that they could repay war reparations and lessen the financial crisis in Europe

- US would give loans to Germany

- Germany would use loans to pay reparations to Britain and France

- Britain and France would use reparation money to pay back US loans from WWI

- creates a system where Europe's economy is dependent on the US

John Maynard Keynes

British economist who believed that for a nation to recovery fully from a depression, the government had to spend money in order to encourage investment and consumption

- government spending should increase during an economic crisis in areas like infrastructure and public works to create jobs

National Government (Britain)

Multiparty coalition that passed high protective tariffs, increased taxes, and regulated currency (money)

- created in 1931

- cut unemployment by 1.5 million people

Popular Front

1930s coalition of left-wing parties (Communists, Socialists, & Radicals) intent on creating economic reforms

- promised wage increases, paid vacations, and collective bargaining to French workers

- reduced work week to 40 hours

- intended to combat surge of fascist groups in France as the Depression worsened

Benito Mussolini

Founder of the Fascist Party and fascist leader of Italy

- known as "Il Duce"

- came to power in 1922 after the March on Rome and appealing to the middle class and national pride

- allied himself with Adolf Hitler and the Axis powers during WWII

- restructured economy using corporatism

- used press censorship, elimination of opposition parties, etc

Blackshirts

Extreme group of Italian fascists and Mussolini supporters

- used violence and brutality towards anyone they viewed as a threat to fascism, particularly communists and labor organizations

National Socialist German Workers Party

Also known as the Nazi Party

- far-right, racist political party in Germany from 1920-1945

- 1920 platform denounces Treaty of Versailles

- Hitler rises ranks to become party leader by 1923

- strong appeals to middle class and promises to restore honor of Germany made it appealing to struggling Germans in the 1920s and 1930s

Adolf Hitler

Austrian-born failed artist and WWI veteran who becomes the leader of the German Nazi Party and the chancellor of the Third Reich from 1933-1945

- fascist philosophy and solutions to the Great Depression attracted widespread support

- pursuit of aggressive nationalist policies and continental expansion (Lebensraum) resulted in the invasion of Poland in 1939 and the outbreak of WWII

- antisemitic supporter of Social Darwinism and believer that Europe's Jewish population needed to be eradicated

Lebensraum

Hitler's expansionist theory, based on a drive to acquire "living space" for the German people

- justification for invasion of European nations

Joseph Goebbels

Chief minister of the Nazi propaganda and organizer of the Kristallnacht pogrom

- used film as an important medium to captivate audiences and make Hitler appear god-like

Cult of Personality

arises when a leader uses mass media, propaganda, or other methods to create an idealized, heroic, and worshipful image of themselves, often requiring citizens' unquestioning loyalty

- ex. "Il Duce" and "Fuhrer" titles for Mussolini & Hitler, who wore military uniforms, adopted special symbols, and surrounded themselves with soldiers and police to brutalize opponents

Francisco Franco

Fascist leader of a violent revolution against the Spanish government, which led to the Spanish Civil War and his ultimate victory

- received weapons and money from Hitler and Mussolini

Soviet Union

Formed under Lenin in 1922

- totalitarian communist state in eastern Europe

Joseph Stalin

Russian leader who succeeded Lenin as head of the Communist Party and created a totalitarian state by purging all opposition (millions of accused political opponents, diplomats, and ordinary people) and leading with an iron fist

- ruled from 1928-1953

- used Five-Year Plans to increase industrial production

Five Year Plan

Plans created by Stalin to industrialize the Soviet Union at a fast pace

- rapid industrialization to make up for centuries spent lagging behind western Europe

- prioritized chemicals and weapons production instead of consumer goods

- wages dropped by almost 50% and Soviet citizens suffered greatly

Kulaks

"Rich" peasants in the Russian Empire who owned farms and used hired labor

- suffered greatly from collectivization of agriculture

Collectivization

Stalin's forcible consolidation, beginning in 1929, of individual peasant farms in the Soviet Union into large, state-controlled enterprises

- forced kulaks to lose land and wealth and led to mass starvation

Holodomor

A man-made famine/genocide from 1932-1933 in which the USSR starved the people of Ukraine as a result of collectivization

- killed millions

Gulag

a system of forced labor camps in the Soviet Union in which millions of criminals and political prisoners were held under Stalin

Appeasement

A policy advocated by the British and French toward the Germans following WWI

- hope was to give in to Hitler's demands in order to avoid another costly and devastating war

Anschluss

The annexation of Austria by Germany, resulting in the occupation of Austria by the German army in 1938

Munich Pact

During the Munich Conference of 1938, Britain and France met with Hitler

- allowed him to take over the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia as long as he agreed to expand no further

- the agreement was seen as an assurance of peace

Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

- August 1939

- Hitler and Stalin agreed not to attack each other for 10 years and agreed to divide Poland since they both wanted the territory and also wanted to avoid conflict

- Hitler defied this agreement just two years later

Axis Powers

Germany, Italy, Japan

Allied Powers (WWII)

Britain, USSR, US (France is occupied by Nazi Germany)

Winston Churchill

Prime Minister of Britain throughout WWII

- encouraged resilient spirit among British citizens during Battle of Britain and D-Day particularly

Franklin D. Roosevelt

President of the US during the Great Depression and WWII

Blitzkrieg

Intense military campaign used by the Germans intended to bring about a swift victory

- combination of tank, soldier, and air power designed to overwhelm enemy

- used in the invasion of Poland and other western European countries

Operation Barbarossa

June 1941 Nazi invasion of USSR

- violated the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

- brought the USSR into the war on the side of the Allies

- In general, this operation refers to Hitler's idea to destroy the Soviet Union and achieve his goal of Lebensraum

- ultimately fails

Pearl Harbor

American naval base in Hawaii that was bombed by Japan on December 7, 1941

- caused America to enter the war on the side of the Allies

Siege of Leningrad

1941-1944

- As part of Operation Barbarossa, German forces surrounded this Russian city and cut off supplies

- one million Russian civilians died of starvation and cold weather

- intended to destroy city and inhabitants as part of Generalplan Ost

- classified as a genocide by modern historians

Battle of Stalingrad

1942

- Battle between invading German forces and Soviet defenders for control of the city

- each side sustained hundreds of thousands of casualties

- German casualties were worsened because they were unprepared to be stuck in Russian winter

- Germany's defeat marked turning point in the war

D-Day Invasion

June 6, 1944

- Allied troops landed at Normandy Beach in France via air and sea and invaded up the beach

- opened the door to the liberation of France and the rest of western Europe from Nazi control

Nuremberg Laws

1935 laws denying German citizenship to Jews and preventing them from marrying non-Jews

- restricted from doing other things like attending schools or being employed by non-Jews

- forced them to wear the Star of David in public

Jewish Question

Hitler (and Germany)'s issue of how to end Jewish influence in Germany and across Europe

- viewed as inferior & subhuman and thought to be responsible for Germany's economic problems

Kristallnacht

"Night of the Broken Glass" on November 9, 1938

- when mobs throughout Germany destroyed Jewish property, burned buildings and synagogues, and terrorized Jews

- 91 killed and 30,000 deported to concentration camps

Final Solution

"final solution to the Jewish question"

- originally, Nazis explored the possibility of deporting Jews to eastern Europe, Siberia, or another colony elsewhere in the world, but this proved to be impractical

- answer/solution: murder of all of Europe's Jews

- decided in 1942 at the Wannsee Conference

- following this decision came mass arrests, executions, deportations to concentration camps, and the systemized/industrialized murder of Jews in concentration or extermination camps

Ghettos

Walled-off sections of European towns and cities in which Jews were forced to live before being deported

- in the Warsaw ghetto, 400,000 people were packed into an area of 1.3 square miles

- starvation, disease, and death was rampant

- "liquidating" ghetto meant deporting mass amounts of ghetto residents to concentration camps

- uprisings were attempted but none succeeded

Holocaust

Overarching term for Hitler and Nazi Germany's genocide from 1933-1945 (ramping up particularly in the 1940s)

- Early years of Holocaust used mobile killing squads and gas vans to murder victims, but this was not very efficient

- Later years of Holocaust used extermination camps and gas chambers to murder millions (industrial murder)

- 6 million Jews were murdered as well as Poles & Russians (Slavic people were also deemed "inferior" to Germans), prisoners of war, gay men, lesbian women, Roma (formerly known as Gypsies), communists/socialists, and people with disabilities (physical and mental)

Lost Generation

Generations of Europeans during and after WWI who became disillusioned with the world and traumatized by the war

- huge chunk of this population was killed in WWI - "lost"

- those who survived were disaffected, hopeless, and struggling to navigate a scary new world

- used to describe post-WWI authors who wrote about their experiences in WWI and their struggles afterward, including Erich Remarque's "All Quiet on the Western Front"

Marshall Plan

A 1947 American plan to revive war-torn economies of Europe

- offered $13 billion in aid to western and Southern Europe

- supported belief that restoring economic stability would prevent communism from growing

- supported construction projects and revival of industry

- aid was offered to the USSR but they declined

Satellite nations

Countries that fell under Soviet influence in the postwar era

- included Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and East Germany

European Economic Community (Common Market)

An organization promoting economic unity in Europe, formed in 1957

- joined France, West Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and Italy

- enabled free trade between those nations

United Nations (UN)

an organization of nations formed in 1945 to promote international peace and security

- Roosevelt and Churchill hoped the new organization would prevent disputes between nations

Self-determination

the right of people to choose their own form of government

- US and Britain supported free elections for the nations of Eastern Europe that the Soviets had liberated from the Nazis

- Stalin insisted those nations remain under his control

Iron Curtain

Winston Churchill's term for the Cold War division between the Soviet-dominated East and the U.S.-dominated West

- represents the sharp divide between the two spheres of influence

Truman Doctrine

US President Harry Truman's 1947 policy of providing economic and military aid to any country threatened by communism or totalitarian ideology

- designed to support "domino theory" that the "fall" of one nation to communism would cause neighboring nations to fall

Nuclear Arms Race

Cold War competition between U.S. and Soviet Union to develop the most advanced nuclear weapons

- the idea of mutually assured destruction ensured that neither side would use their weapons against the other

- caused tension across the world

Covert actions

a military operation that is carried out secretly and often outside of official channels

- organizations like the KGB (Soviet), MI6 (Britain), and CIA (US) were some agencies involved in spying

Korean War

The conflict between Communist North Korea and Non-Communist South Korea.

- United Nations (led by the United States) helped South Korea

- China and USSR supported North Korea

- example of a Cold War proxy ("hot") war

Vietnam War

The conflict between communist armies of North Vietnam (supported by China and USSR) and the non-communist armies of South Vietnam (supported by US)

- example of Cold War proxy ("hot") war

Non-Aligned Movement

The group of nations that didn't side with either the US or the USSR during the Cold War

- examples include India, Yugoslavia, and Indonesia

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

1949 alliance of nations that agreed to band together in the event of war and to support and protect each nation involved

- 10 nations of western Europe along with the US and Canada were the original nations

World Bank and International Monetary Fund

international organizations that were created following the Bretton Woods conference in 1944

- seek to reduce poverty around the world, provide financial advice and aid, and provide loans and technical assistance to developing countries

- as of 2021, over 180 countries are a part of the IMF

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

a 1948 agreement that established an international forum for negotiating a reduction of trade restrictions

- enabled easier trade between member nations

- led to a stark decrease in tariff rates, which led to lower prices for consumers

World Trade Organization (WTO)

a global institution to promote international trade and to settle international trade disputes that replaced GATT in 1995

- today, it has 164 member nations and controls 96% of world trade

- some believe that it creates a "global government" that interferes with the rights of individual countries

Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON)

An economic alliance created in 1949 to coordinate the economic affairs of the Soviet Union and its satellite countries

- created in response to USSR's rejection of the Marshall Plan

- other communist nations like Cuba and Vietnam would also join

Warsaw Pact

A military alliance between the Soviet Union and its satellite nations in response to the creation of NATO

- Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania joined

- USSR dominated and forced the satellites to send a certain number of soldiers each year to be controlled by the USSR

Soviet bloc

General term for the nations of Eastern Europe that were closely bound to the USSR, which controlled all aspects of life in the region

Planned economies

economic systems directed by government agencies

- USSR Communist party controlled economies of all Soviet-bloc countries

- determined what was produced, how much was produced, and where it would be sold

- little emphasis on consumer goods (leading to shortages of clothing, medicine, etc) and heavy emphasis on industry

Berlin Wall

A fortified wall surrounding West Berlin, Germany, built in 1961 to prevent East German citizens from escaping to the West after waves of skilled workers and professionals previously fled

- topped with barbed wire and monitored by armed guards

- symbolized repression and Soviet control

- demolished in 1989, which symbolized the end of the Cold War

Nikita Khrushchev

Leader of USSR from 1956-1964 following the death of Stalin

- led de-Stalinization efforts to ease restrictions and control over Soviet citizens, particularly when it came to political restrictions and economic policies

- tried to give more autonomy to Eastern European satellites but it ended up leading to more revolts

De-Stalinization

Khrushchev's policy of ridding the Soviet Union of Stalin's memory and influence after his death

- less censorship

- releasing political prisoners

- allowed certain people to change jobs

- decreased power of secret police

- agreed to give satellite governments in Eastern Europe more autonomy, but anger over lingering restrictions led to revolts

Prague Spring

In 1968, Czechoslovakia (Soviet satellite) began to reform and ease censorship

- government promised civil liberties, democratic political reforms, and a more independent political system

- The Soviet Union invaded the country to defend communism and put down the short-lived period of freedom