04 - poverty + rule

What is the central argument of Edward P. Thompson’s essay, “The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century”?

Thompson argues that before the French Revolution, common people were reactive participants in history, appearing during economic crises or social upheaval, often not seen as historical agents. His perspective contrasts with earlier views that portrayed popular actions as impulsive responses to material needs rather than deliberate political expressions.

Who are some of the historians supporting the "spasmodic" view of the English crowd in the eighteenth century?

Historians like Beloff, Wearmouth, Ashton, and Charles Wilson supported the "spasmodic" view. They saw popular actions as reactions to economic distress rather than conscious political resistance. For example, Beloff interpreted food riots as responses to unemployment and high prices, sometimes degenerating into “mere excuses for crime.”

What is Beloff’s interpretation of early eighteenth-century food riots?

Beloff described early eighteenth-century food riots as reactions to high prices and unemployment, sometimes degenerating into “mere excuses for crime.” He viewed these riots not as deliberate political acts but as impulsive responses to material needs.

How does Wearmouth explain popular unrest in the eighteenth century?

Wearmouth attributed unrest to "distress" without considering broader social or political motivations. His analysis focused on economic hardship rather than political or moral concerns.

What is Ashton’s interpretation of food riots among colliers in the eighteenth century?

Ashton interpreted food riots among colliers as “rebellions of the belly,” emphasizing that hunger, rather than political motivations, was the primary driver of such riots.

What does Charles Wilson argue regarding popular uprisings in the eighteenth century?

Wilson, following the "spasmodic" view, argued that riots were instinctive reactions to sudden rises in food prices, reducing the complex social actions to basic economic responses.

What does Thompson argue about the motivations behind eighteenth-century food riots?

Thompson argues that these riots were guided by a sense of legitimation, where participants believed they were upholding traditional rights or customs. The actions reflected the community's broader consensus on fair practices and economic obligations rather than mere reactions to economic hardship.

What role did the sense of legitimation play in eighteenth-century crowd actions?

Thompson contends that crowd actions were not random but purposeful. The crowd believed their actions were justifiable as they sought to uphold perceived legitimate economic and social behaviors, often rooted in traditional rights or customs.

How did authorities react to crowd actions in the eighteenth century?

Authorities sometimes granted a degree of license to these actions, but more often, the strength of communal consensus overcame any fear or deference that might have restrained action. Popular protest sometimes had the tacit approval of local authorities.

How were eighteenth-century food riots influenced by the “moral economy”?

The "moral economy" referred to a shared understanding of fairness in the marketplace and social roles. Riots were not merely reactions to hunger or economic hardship but were aimed at restoring what the people perceived as a just economic order.

What does Thompson say about the complexity of eighteenth-century food riots?

Thompson describes the food riots as disciplined acts of popular protest with clear goals, shaped by a collective moral economy. These riots sought to uphold social norms and economic obligations, rather than just expressing frustration over material deprivation.

What significant food riots occurred during the eighteenth century in England?

Significant riots occurred in years such as 1709, 1740, 1756-7, 1766-7, 1773, 1782, and notably in 1795 and 1800-1. These riots often responded to perceived injustices in food pricing and availability.

What economic changes occurred in eighteenth-century England related to food production?

Agricultural improvements, particularly in corn-producing regions, coexisted with market tensions. These changes intensified conflicts over food prices, with riots sometimes intervening to set prices, especially during times of scarcity.

What was Adam Smith’s stance on the regulation of corn trade during the eighteenth century?

Adam Smith, in his work The Wealth of Nations (1776), argued against regulating the internal corn trade and supported a laissez-faire approach, emphasizing minimal state intervention. He believed that free market forces should govern corn prices.

How did Smith's views on the corn trade influence British economic policy?

Smith's views, alongside the works of other economists like Charles Smith’s Tracts on the Corn Trade (1758-9), led to the repeal of anti-forestalling laws between 1767 and 1772, marking a victory for laissez-faire principles.

How did the free market model work in the context of corn pricing during the eighteenth century?

The free market relied on supply and demand, where prices naturally adjusted over the year. In years of scarcity, high prices acted as an incentive for imports, and the self-regulating economy aimed to prevent early depletion of stocks.

How did the market for corn affect the lower classes in eighteenth-century England?

The lower classes were highly dependent on bread, especially wheat. When prices rose, they cut back on other budget items, devoting the entirety of their food budget to bread in years of high prices. This reliance underscored the importance of corn as a vital necessity.

What role did the “moral economy” play in the price-setting actions of the poor?

The "moral economy" guided the poor in their direct actions to set prices, often targeting individuals like millers, dealers, or farmers. The crowd's actions were based on their belief in a just price, not merely an economic response to hardship.

How did foreign grain exports influence popular unrest in the eighteenth century?

Resentment was fueled by foreign grain exports subsidized by English taxes. The perception that grain was being sent abroad, especially when there was local scarcity, sparked riots, as people saw exporters profiting dishonorably from the situation.

What was the role of women in eighteenth-century food riots?

Women often played a key role in initiating riots. For example, in 1693, women in Northampton led a protest, and in 1737, women led an export riot at Poole. Women used their perceived immunity from punishment to lead direct actions against unpopular dealers.

How did local communities and workers contribute to food riots?

Riots often involved participants from the lower classes, including workers from various occupations such as blanket-weavers, weavers, and labourers. In some cases, large employers influenced their workers to participate in protests against farmers and middlemen.

What was the social and economic impact of food riots in the short term?

In the short term, food riots sometimes had counterproductive effects. Farmers were intimidated and sometimes refused to bring goods to market, exacerbating regional shortages. Riots sometimes led to price drops but also disrupted market conditions further.

How did local authorities handle food riots?

Local authorities were often effective in managing disturbances, but food riots caused lasting social dislocation. Military intervention, when used, was often unpopular and led to local backlash.

What role did the market play in pre-industrial societies in terms of social and political discourse?

In pre-industrial societies, the market was a vital social nexus where people could unite over shared concerns. It was a place for personal transactions, gossip, and political discourse, and it played a role in fostering a sense of collective strength among local communities.

How did times of scarcity affect the psychological and social responses of communities?

Scarcity heightened the emotional intensity of people's reactions, fueling frustration and collective action. The knowledge of inequality during such times deepened the psychological impact, prompting protests and unrest.

What were bridewells, and what were they designed for?

Bridewells were a new kind of penal institution, first appearing in 1555, designed specifically for the labouring poor, often guilty of minor offences like vagrancy and unlicensed begging. Unlike traditional prisons, they aimed not just to detain but also to punish and reform inmates, subjecting them to strict discipline, hard labour, and sometimes whipping.

How did English bridewells differ from traditional prisons?

Traditional prisons, or gaols, were places of detention for a heterogeneous group of people awaiting trial or punishment, often for civil suits or debt. In contrast, bridewells targeted the poor, particularly for minor offences like vagrancy, and were designed to impose discipline and reform through hard labour and punishment.

How did the promoters of bridewells view their potential impact on society?

Promoters saw bridewells as tools for ambitious, even utopian, social policies. They believed these institutions could drive social transformation by reforming the poor, though these goals were rarely fully realized. Over time, bridewells were seen more as part of distinct social and penal projects.

What role did historians like Joanna Innes suggest bridewells played in early modern English society?

Innes argued that while historians have suggested a decline of bridewells by the 18th century, viewing them as poorly managed, she proposed that bridewells were part of broader capitalist social policies. These institutions were intended to create and maintain a submissive workforce, particularly in economically advanced regions like England.

What was the relationship between bridewells and labour discipline in England?

English bridewells served as tools of labour discipline, particularly for workplace-related offences. Many inmates were committed for offences such as insubordination or leaving work prematurely, often at the request of employers, and aligned with master-servant laws that enforced employer authority.

How did the role of bridewells evolve from the 16th to 18th centuries?

Initially, bridewells were meant to reform the poor through hard labour, punishment, and discipline. However, by the early 18th century, they declined into general correctional facilities, becoming increasingly indistinguishable from traditional gaols. This decline was partly due to the weakening of governmental ambition after the Civil War.

What social context led to the establishment of bridewells in the 16th century?

By the 16th century, England had shifted from a feudal system of personal servitude to a free labour system, requiring public courts to handle master-servant disputes. Bridewells were created to enforce labour obligations and correct moral failings in the servant class, particularly to address vagrancy and disorderly behaviour.

What were the key factors in the growth of bridewells in England by the 17th century?

The establishment of bridewells was driven by a growing population, the expansion of government, and urban challenges with poverty. Local officials, including Justices of the Peace, were tasked with implementing these reforms, with parliamentary pressure leading to the creation of bridewells in both rural and urban areas.

How did the establishment of bridewells differ in rural and urban areas?

Bridewells first appeared in urban areas to address social issues like beggary and homelessness. By the late 16th century, rural bridewells began to be established, particularly in manufacturing regions like Norfolk and Essex. A nationwide network of county bridewells existed by 1630, unlike in countries like the Netherlands and France, where rural penal institutions appeared much later.

What role did Justices of the Peace play in the establishment of bridewells?

Justices of the Peace were essential in establishing bridewells. They implemented central government policies locally, particularly in rural areas. Once a bridewell was set up, they had more options for disciplining offenders, especially when dealing with the poor, and bridewells were often under local control rather than the sheriff’s.

What challenges did bridewells face in their early years?

Bridewells faced challenges like poor financial management, inadequate capacity, and the difficulty of distinguishing between truly "idle" poor and those in genuine hardship. Overcrowding, mismanagement, and the blending of different social classes, including victims of misfortune, often exacerbated the very problems bridewells were intended to solve.

What was the impact of the 1576 law regarding the poor and bridewells?

The 1576 law required that raw materials be distributed to the poor for labour, with relief granted only to those unable to work. It established houses of correction to detain individuals refusing to work on public projects like begging or stealing, and to oversee the labour of the poor.

How did the use of bridewells evolve in the early 17th century?

By the early 1600s, bridewells became centres for punishing lesser felonies and were used to discipline moral offences like prostitution and adultery. They also played a key role in urban policing, particularly in controlling begging, disorderly behaviour, and petty theft.

How did the role of bridewells change in the late 17th and early 18th centuries?

From 1690 to 1720, there was renewed interest in bridewells, with many new institutions being founded. These expansions were typically driven by local needs, especially in rapidly developing urban areas like Bristol and Birmingham, which were dealing with social challenges due to economic shifts.

How did the financial and operational aspects of bridewells impact their effectiveness?

Bridewell masters were paid modest salaries, ranging from £2 to £60 per year, and while some areas increased salaries due to high operational costs, the institutions were often underfunded. The work carried out in bridewells was irregular, and the lack of consistent production meant the reformative goals were rarely achieved.

What economic and social factors influenced the rise in bridewell foundations between 1690 and 1720?

The economic prosperity of the 1680s was followed by economic instability in the 1690s and early 18th century, marked by wars, trade disruptions, and bad harvests. The period saw slower population growth and heightened fears of worker discipline, especially as many young men were mobilized for wartime service. This led to the establishment of new bridewells in regions with growing populations and insufficient existing institutions.

What were the two key factors behind the establishment of new bridewells?

The push for new bridewells stemmed from:

1. An ongoing effort to force the poor into work, particularly in manufacturing, despite a lack of employer demand.

2. A renewed focus on moral reform, with penal law seen as a tool for disciplining the poor and reducing crime.

What regions saw a significant rise in workhouses in the early 18th century, and what was their main focus?

Workhouses were primarily established in the south-west, west, and East Anglia, with a major workhouse scheme relaunching in London. Children were the primary inmates, and efforts focused on ensuring they worked. In Bristol, high wages in the workhouse raised labor costs across the city.

What was the impact of the 1706 Act on bridewells, and how did it affect sentencing?

The 1706 Act allowed felons convicted of simple theft at Quarter Sessions or Assizes to be sentenced to hard labor in bridewells for six months to two years. Although not mandatory, High Court judges supported its principles, and by 1718, about 20% of property crime convicts in London were sentenced to bridewells, with terms often set to the maximum of two years.

How did the 1718 Act alter the use of bridewells?

The 1718 Act authorized the transportation of prisoners convicted of minor thefts for seven years, significantly reducing the use of bridewells. The decline in bridewell sentences reflected dissatisfaction with their outcomes, as many sentenced to hard labor either reoffended or faced execution.

What led to the closure of many bridewells between 1740 and 1742?

Many bridewells, particularly in Suffolk, Somerset, Shropshire, Derbyshire, Staffordshire, and the Birmingham area, were closed due to the high costs of maintaining these institutions. The Vagrancy Act of 1740 also contributed to closures, as it aimed to use bridewells for social order but led to financial strain.

What significant changes occurred in bridewell management by the late 18th century?

By the 1780s, reformers in Gloucestershire closed three bridewells and built new facilities nearby. Bridewells were increasingly used to house trial-awaiting prisoners, leading to better administration and oversight by Justices, which included improved keeper salaries and facilities.

What was the main purpose behind the establishment of bridewells?

Bridewells were intended to reform the idle poor by forcing them to work, curb beggary and vagrancy, and prevent further criminality. However, no penal institution could fully achieve these goals, as social pressures continually recreated the behaviors that bridewells aimed to repress.

Why were bridewells often ineffective as regulatory institutions?

Bridewells were often too few, too small, and poorly managed to significantly impact the lives of the poor. Most inmates served short terms, and the environment within the bridewells often led to corrupting behavior rather than reform.

How did the early modern penal system, including bridewells, affect local social dynamics?

Local elites, employers, and government officers could use the threat of bridewell commitment to enforce discipline among the poor, especially those dependent on parish aid. This system enabled them to maintain control over the poor and influenced local social structures.

How did the decline of bridewells lead to changes in social regulation by the end of the 18th century?

The shift away from the bridewell system was due to the rise of new, less coercive methods of social regulation. Imprisonment remained a punishment for minor crimes, but controlling the poor and maintaining social order moved towards approaches focused on social relations, employment, and charity, reducing reliance on punitive institutions like bridewells.

How much did England’s parishes spend on poor relief by 1800?

By around 1800, England’s parishes were spending over £4 million per year on poor relief.

What was unique about the English poor relief system compared to Europe?

The English poor relief system was unique in its structure, being the first in Europe to implement compulsory taxation and create a legal duty to support the destitute. This system significantly impacted the lives of the poor and helped provide crucial aid during crises.

How did welfare spending in England grow in the 17th and 18th centuries?

Welfare spending grew faster than population growth and inflation, often outpacing agricultural wages. This suggests that the poor themselves drove some aspects of the system's expansion, as they petitioned for aid and settlement certificates.

How did national estimates of poor relief spending evolve in the 17th and 18th centuries?

National spending estimates were scarce until the 1770s, with early figures ranging from £30,000–£40,000 annually (Willet, 1614) to £400,000 (Council of Trade, 1695). More reliable data began emerging in the 1690s, with significant growth in welfare spending from the 1770s onward.

What social and political factors influenced the growth of the poor relief system in England?

The growth of the poor relief system was influenced by the Tudor Poor Laws, economic conditions, population changes, and price inflation. Despite attempts to limit relief spending through legal restrictions, these factors drove the system’s expansion and helped institutionalize welfare provision by 1600.

What were the key trends in poor relief spending from 1647 to 1800?

Spending on poor relief saw periods of rapid growth, particularly during the Civil Wars, the reigns of James I and Charles I, and after the 1690s. The early 18th century experienced moderate growth, with a significant surge in spending in the 1770s, continuing into the 19th century.

How did the cost of living and inflation impact poor relief spending in 17th and 18th-century England?

Despite nominal relief spending often lagging behind inflation, real per capita disbursements consistently increased over time. Relief spending grew faster than population and wages, driven by rising food prices and economic growth.

What role did petitions for relief play in the growth of the poor relief system?

Petitions for relief, such as Thomas Dufty’s in 1694, contributed to the expansion of the system. As these petitions became more institutionalized, they supported the increasing sums devoted to meeting the needs of the poor across England.

What did Brodie Waddell argue about the rise of the parish welfare state in England?

In his article "The rise of the parish welfare state in England, c.1600–1800" (Past & Present, 253, 2021), Brodie Waddell argued that the parish welfare system grew significantly in terms of spending and influence, helping drive England’s economic growth and industrialization while shaping the development of welfare systems.

How have historians gained insights into lower-class social criticism in early modern England?

Historians have used legal records, particularly those from the Privy Council, to understand lower-class social criticism. These records, often documenting illegal speech, provide glimpses into the dissident attitudes of the plebeian class and reveal how the elite rulers of Tudor and Stuart England were preoccupied with monitoring popular sentiment.

How does Shakespeare's Henry VI Part II reflect popular concerns of early modern England?

In Henry VI Part II, the character of Jack Cade expresses a deep distrust of the gentry and resentment toward social injustices. Cade's criticisms about the nobility's disdain for labourers and his focus on community ideals, though exaggerated, reflect the real grievances of popular movements and early modern rebellions, which often centered on issues like fair labour and justice.

What is the main distinction between Shakespeare’s portrayal of Jack Cade and actual historical rebellions?

Shakespeare’s portrayal of Cade highlights violent rhetoric and disorder, focusing on chaos rather than the more structured demands typical of actual popular politics. In real-life uprisings, protestors often issued formal, legal petitions, emphasizing moral order and legality, in contrast to the more unruly revolt depicted in Shakespeare’s play.

What does Shakespeare’s portrayal of Jack Cade’s rhetoric tell us about early modern popular politics?

Shakespeare distorts Cade’s criticisms of the legal system, depicting his followers as wanting to abolish written law, which contrasts with historical accounts where real rebels, like those in 1450, issued formal petitions. Some critics, such as Tillyard, argue that Shakespeare reinforces hierarchical control by portraying the commons as base and chaotic, while others suggest that Cade subtly reflects plebeian politics.

How do Marxist historians interpret the English Civil Wars of the 1640s?

Marxist historians view the English Civil Wars as a class conflict between the nobility and an emerging middle class, which they argue set the stage for the dominance of capitalism.

How do revisionist historians differ in their interpretation of the English Civil Wars?

Revisionist historians argue that social class did not play a decisive role in the English Civil Wars, emphasizing short-term political factors over class conflict. They suggest that the wars were not driven by revolutionary ideas but by accidental political progression.

How does the "new" social history of early modern England challenge revisionist views?

The "new" social history, which focuses on demographic pressures like population growth and urbanization, challenges revisionist views by arguing that long-term social and cultural changes, such as protests and riots, were driven by social factors, not just short-term political events.

What is the significance of "pre-political" protests in early modern England?

Scholars like Roger Manning argue that early modern protests, though often directed at local issues, were “pre-political” because they did not evolve into organized political movements. These protests were seen as a form of social unrest rather than formal political activism.

How have post-revisionist historians reshaped the understanding of popular politics?

Post-revisionist historians, especially in early Stuart studies, have shown that a larger portion of the population engaged with political issues, such as constitutional, religious, and foreign policy matters. This has challenged the traditional divide between elite and popular politics.

What role does Tim Harris’s study of London crowds in Charles II’s time play in understanding early modern politics?

Tim Harris’s study of London crowds has contributed to the understanding of the "public sphere" in political organization, showing how popular politics in later Stuart and Augustan England influenced political discourse and public action.

What does David Underdown’s view of early modern political culture suggest?

David Underdown argues that early modern political culture should be seen as a spectrum, where elite and popular politics interacted, with certain ideas, like patriarchal gender roles, crossing class lines, and others, such as "custom," resonating more strongly within plebeian culture.

How does recent social history view the relationship between politics and social hierarchies?

Recent social history emphasizes that politics is inherently linked to social hierarchies, such as gender, age, and class. Politics is seen as a dynamic force that operates within everyday social relationships, challenging the traditional view that politics was confined to elites or central governments.

How has feminist scholarship influenced the study of early modern politics?

Feminist scholarship has critiqued the traditional public-private divide in political science, arguing that "privacy" is politically constructed. This has reshaped the understanding of women's involvement in politics, especially in relation to protests like enclosure riots, where women defended domestic economies.

How has the concept of "cultural hegemony" shaped the understanding of class relations in early modern England?

The concept of "cultural hegemony," developed by Antonio Gramsci, suggests that the ruling class maintains dominance not just through force but by securing the consent of the ruled through cultural practices and beliefs. In early modern England, the gentry exercised cultural hegemony, maintaining control through ideas of law, custom, and patriarchal order.

What does Edward Thompson’s analysis of social relations in eighteenth-century England reveal about class conflict?

Edward Thompson’s analysis suggests that while lower-class actions like riots expressed tensions, the elite did not feel threatened by these protests. Instead, a form of cautious reciprocity emerged between the rich and poor, challenging simplistic models of class struggle.

How does the concept of "cultural hegemony" apply to early modern class relations?

In early modern England, the gentry's cultural hegemony reinforced their dominance, with lower-class protests often relying on appeals to custom rather than challenging the status quo. While the gentry’s authority was sometimes reinforced by force, it was primarily based on cultural influence.

How does Gramsci’s theory of cultural hegemony relate to the politics of subaltern groups?

Gramsci’s theory suggests that subaltern groups (those outside the ruling elite) are complicit in their own subordination through the limited rights they are granted. For revolutionaries, the challenge was to transform these everyday struggles into a broader political movement to overthrow elite dominance.

What significant shift occurred in the study of early modern crime since the 1970s?

The study of early modern crime significantly expanded since the 1970s, correcting its previous neglect. Early history textbooks barely mentioned crime, offering only brief references, whereas more recent scholarship has explored crime in greater depth, focusing on prosecution and punishment.

Who were some historians that neglected the study of crime in early modern England?

B. Black’s account of Elizabeth I’s reign, Sir George Clark’s work on the later Stuarts, and J.H. Plumb’s popular history of the eighteenth century all gave limited attention to crime, often focusing on specific subjects like witchcraft or gin-drinking rather than crime as a central theme.

What was Keith Thomas' observation about social history in 1966?

Keith Thomas observed in 1966 that social history was treated as an "undemanding subsidiary" of political history, indicating the marginalization of social history in early historical scholarship.

How did the Annales school and social sciences influence the study of early modern crime?

The influence of the Annales school and social sciences, especially anthropology, encouraged historians to approach Tudor and Stuart England in new ways, with greater focus on social and cultural contexts, transforming the study of crime.

What sources allowed for more detailed studies of crime in early modern England?

Increased access to archival materials, including court records from institutions such as the Star Chamber and local manorial courts, allowed historians to move beyond anecdotal accounts and explore crime in more depth.

What is a key challenge when analyzing crime data from early modern England?

A key challenge is understanding the variation in what constituted "criminal" behavior, as definitions of crime varied by time, place, and social context. Some acts considered criminal were only defined as such in specific societies.

How did G.R. Elton's approach to crime differ from modern understandings?

G.R. Elton dismissed the inclusion of church courts in crime studies, failing to recognize that early modern authorities saw moral and legal offenses as interconnected. He also equated "real crime" with treason and felony, overlooking minor offenses like breaking work obligations.

Why was the line between crime, sin, and civil offenses blurred in early modern England?

In a deeply religious society, many crimes were viewed as offenses against both divine and earthly law. Adultery, for example, was criminalized, and both church and secular authorities often worked together to address offenses.

How did crime control in early modern England differ from modern practices?

In early modern England, prosecutions were mostly initiated by victims, local officials, or citizens rather than a centralized police force. This system gave criminal cases a quasi-civil character, with individuals seeking redress for personal grievances.

What is the methodological significance of court records in studying early modern crime?

Court records, such as those from assizes and local courts, provide quantitative and qualitative insights into crime, revealing patterns of law enforcement priorities and offering a lens into the social context of crime.

What scholars helped shape the study of crime through statistical methods?

Scholars like Joel Samaha, J.S. Cockburn, and J.M. Beattie used statistical methods to link crime trends to socio-economic conditions, with Beattie’s 1986 study of crime in Surrey and Sussex being a significant contribution.

How does the concept of "social crime" reshape our understanding of early modern crime?

The concept of "social crime," introduced by historians like E.P. Thompson and his students, emphasized that crimes defined as illegal by the state could be seen as justifiable by lower social classes, challenging official law and offering new perspectives on the relationship between crime and authority.

What period does James A. Sharpe focus on in Crime in Early Modern England and why?

Sharpe focuses on the period from 1550 to 1750, marking a time of significant societal changes, such as population growth, increased state intervention in law enforcement, and the transformation from feudalism to capitalism.

Why is 1750 a significant endpoint for the study of early modern crime?

The year 1750 marks the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, a period that saw growing criticism of the existing criminal justice system, emerging reforms, and new ideas on crime and punishment, such as Cesare Beccaria's Dei Delitti e delle Pene.

What was the impact of Albion’s Fatal Tree on crime history?

Albion’s Fatal Tree by E.P. Thompson and his students emphasized the role of law as a tool of class power and challenged the application of the law by different social groups, highlighting how the lower classes often saw acts like poaching or smuggling as justifiable.

How does Sharpe argue crime and punishment functioned in early modern England?

Sharpe argues that crime and punishment operated within an ideological and socio-economic framework, influenced by elites' perspectives on law enforcement, with popular uprisings and lower-class crime often reflecting alternative legal and moral systems.

What are the three key themes structuring Sharpe’s work on crime in early modern England?

The three key themes are: (1) the importance of quantifying crime data, (2) understanding crime within its social context, and (3) analyzing the objectives and ideologies of those in power, especially the role of elites in shaping law enforcement.

How does Sharpe justify the period of 1550–1750 for his study of crime?

Sharpe justifies the period 1550–1750 by highlighting significant societal changes such as population growth, inflation, and religious and social unrest, which led to stricter laws and greater state intervention in law enforcement.

What significant work did Paul Slack publish in 1988, and how did it transform the historiography of early modern poverty?

Paul Slack published Poverty and Policy in Tudor and Stuart England in 1988, which transformed the field by expanding the study of social policy beyond statutory provision to include the broader socioeconomic context. It traced how sixteenth-century economic changes, such as population growth, inflation, and wage labor, reshaped perceptions of poverty. The book also examined the development of the Elizabethan Poor Laws and the collapse of the distinction between the deserving and undeserving poor, particularly with the emergence of the "labouring poor."

Who were some of the scholars influencing Slack’s work, and what perspective did they bring?

Slack’s work was influenced by scholars such as Peter Clark, Keith Wrightson, David Levine, John Walter, Lee Beier, and Tim Wales. These scholars expanded the study of social policy by linking it to broader economic and social factors. E.P. Thompson’s history from below and historical demography were particularly important, encouraging the exploration of how social and economic factors shaped the lives of the poor.

What did Paul Slack argue about the Elizabethan Poor Laws and their impact on poverty?

Paul Slack argued that the Elizabethan Poor Laws, particularly those passed in 1598 and 1601, codified statutory relief and aimed to control vagrancy and insurrection. He also noted that these laws represented a political response to social instability and were influenced by Christian humanism, Protestant charity, and the political motivations of the Elizabethan authorities. However, Slack was skeptical that the laws could alleviate poverty without broader economic growth, although he acknowledged they played a role in mitigating hardship.

How did Steve Hindle’s On the Parish? (2004) build upon and challenge Paul Slack’s work?

Steve Hindle’s On the Parish? (2004) built upon Slack’s work but challenged some of its conclusions, particularly regarding parish rates and the 1697 badging statute. Hindle shifted focus to rural and small-town communities, where the majority of the population lived, and questioned the assumption that poor relief equated to parish relief. He explored the informal support networks and survival strategies outside of official relief, emphasizing the micro-politics of poor relief and how local power dynamics shaped relief practices.

What key thematic shift does Hindle’s On the Parish? introduce compared to previous studies of poor relief?

Hindle’s On the Parish? introduces a thematic shift by emphasizing the plight of the "conjunctural poor," a larger group than those receiving official parish relief. He examines how statutory poor relief was modified by local social practices, and how informal relief networks and survival strategies shaped local power dynamics. This approach challenges the urban-centric focus of previous scholarship and shifts attention to rural and small-town communities.