Exam 3 psych of human development

Self-Esteem

Evaluation of worth as a person based on all the positive and negative self-perceptions that make up self-concept

Self-Concept

Perceptions of unique attributes and traits

Trait theories

Personality is a set of dispositional trait dimensions along which people can differ (Costa & McCrae)

The Big Five factors of personality (OCEAN)

Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism 

What does openness refer to in OCEAN

 Imaginative or practical, variety or routine, independent or comforting 

What does conscientiousness refer to in OCEAN

Organized or disorganized, careful or careless, disciplined or impulsive

What does extraversion refer to in OCEAN

Sociable or retiring, fun-loving or somber, affectionate or reserved

What does agreeableness refer to in OCEAN

 Soft Hearted or ruthless, trusting or suspicious, helpful or uncooperative

What does neuroticism refer to in OCEAN

Calm or anxious, secure or insecure, self-satisfied or self-pitying

The Rouge Tests

Mark put on child's face, child is put in front of mirror, children under 15 months don’t recognize the reflection in the mirror as themselves, children past 15 months recognize themselves in the mirror and can recognize that the mark shouldn’t be there

Temperament types

easy, difficulty, slow-to-warm

Easy child

Positive mood; establishes regular routines; adapts easily (40%)

Difficult child

 reacts negatively; cries frequently; irregular routines; slow to accept change (10%)

Slow-to-warm-up child

low activity level; somewhat negative; low mood intensity (15%) 

____ of children do not fit any of the temperment patterns

35%

Adolescent understanding of self in early childhood

 Individual variation in description, unrealistically positive

Middle and late childhood understanding of self

Describes in terms of psychological characteristics and traits, self evaluations become more realistic

Possible selves

what adolescents hope to be and what they dread becoming

Erikson’s Stage: Identity vs. role Confusion

From ages 12-20 who am I and where am I going, strength is fidelity

Marcia’s 4 Statuses of Identity

Diffusion, Foreclosure, Moratorium, Achievement

Crisis in Marcia’s 4 statuses of identity

Individual explores alternatives

Commitment in Marcia’s 4 statuses of identity

Personal investment

Identity diffusion

 No crisis or commitments 

Identity foreclosure

Commitment, but no crisis 

Identity moratorium

In the midst of crisis, but commitments are absent or vaguely defined 

Identify achievement

Undergone a crisis and made a commitment 

Life Review

Reminisce and reflect on unresolved conflicts of the past to come to terms with themselves, find new meaning and coherence in their lives, and prepare for death

Continuity/Discontinuity of Personality traits through the life-span

Personality growth from adolescence to middle adulthood shown by greater emotional stability, conscientiousness, agreeableness 

Self-esteem pattern through the lifespan

 Self-esteem becomes more differentiated or multidimensional with age

Sex is most influence by two classes of hormones

Estrogens and androgens

Estrogens and Androgens

Occurs in both females and males in different concentrations

Estrogen

Sex hormones that influence female physical sex characteristics and regulate the menstrual cycle.

Androgens

Sex hormones that promote development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics (testosterone)

Gender stereotypes with testosterone

Causes aggressive behavior and sexual behavior 

Gender identity

 Internal awareness of gender

Cisgender

Individuals whose internal sense of gender matches their physiological sex 

Transgender

Individuals whose internal sense of gender does not match their physiological sex 

Non-binary

Gender non conforming (fluid?)

Social Cognitive Theory

Gender development occurs through observation & imitation as well as rewards & punishments

Kohlberg’s Gender Developmental Stages

Gender constancy which consists of gender labeling, gender stability, and gender consistency

Gender labeling

Correctly labeling the sex

Gender stability

Realizing that sex is stable over time

Gender consistency

Understanding sex doesn’t change with appearance

Socio-emotional traits in females

Aggression is relational aggression, nurturing, empathetic, people-oriented, prone to internalizing

Socio-emotional traits in males

Physically and verbally aggressive, thing-oriented, prone to externalizing 

Appearance stereotypes

 more prevalent for girls 

Activity & trait stereotypes

more prevalent for boys

Gender intensification hypothesis

Process where gender differences may be magnified by hormonal changes of puberty or increased pressure to conform to gender roles

The parental imperative

Requirement that mothers and fathers adopt different roles to raise children

What does Guttman say about aging and changes in later adulthood

Men become more passive/less active, women become more active and assertive

Moral Development

changes in thoughts, feelings, & behaviors regarding standards of right & wrong.

How individuals reason or think about moral decisions

cognitions

How do individuals actually behave in moral circumstances

behavior

How do individuals feel about moral matters

emotions

Heteronomous morality

4-7 yrs. justice & rules as unchangeable

Immanent Justice

 if a rule is broken, immediate punishment; violation is automatically connected to it’s punishment, & if something unfortunate happened, the person must have transgressed

Autonomous Morality

10+ yrs. - rules & laws created by people, punishment occurs only if someone witnesses the wrongdoing, & punishment is not inevitable

Transition morality

 7-10 years

Peer relations are critical for _____ development

moral

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Thought 3 main stages

Preconventional, conventional, postconventional 

Pre-Conventional

Up to 9yrs, good & bad are interpreted in terms of external rewards & punishments

Conventional

early adolescence, certain standards are set by others

Postconventional

early adulthood, alternative moral courses, explore options, personal moral code

 Heinz’s Dilemma

Interviews where children are presented stories and the characters face moral dilemmas. Showed that interaction is a critical part that challenges children to change their moral reasoning.

Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory

Too much emphasis on thought and not on behavior, Kohlberg suggests emotion has negative effects on moral reasoning, but evidence indicates emotions play an important role

Gilligan’s criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory

 Traditional theories of moral development, often based on male perspectives, prioritized abstract principles (justice) over relationships and care, while women's moral reasoning is characterized by a "care perspective". 

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Human behavior is driven by unconscious motives and that the mind is composed of the id, ego, and superego, which interact to shape personality and behavior

What does Freud say is the foundation of moral behavior

guilt & desire to avoid feeling guilty

Superego

The moral branch of personality, has 2 main components 

2 main components of Superego

Ego ideal and conscience

Ego ideal

Rewards the child by conveying a sense of pride and personal value when the child acts in accordance to ideal standards approved by the parents

Conscience

Punishes the child for behaviors disapproved of by the parents, making the child feel guilty

Damon’s developmental stages in empathy

Early infancy, 1-2 yrs, early childhood, 10-12 yrs

Damons early infancy nature of empathy

Global empathy, the young infants empathic response does not distinguish between feelings and needs of self and others 

Damons 1-2 yrs nature of empathy

Child’s empathy is still developing. At first, they just feel upset when they see someone else in distress, but they don’t understand why. As they grow, they start to feel real concern for others, but they still don’t know how to help or take action.

Damons early childhood nature of empathy

 Children become aware that every person’s perspective is unique and that someone else may have a different reaction to a situation. This awareness allows the child to respond more appropriately to another person’s distress. 

Damons 10-12 yrs nature of empathy

Children develop empathy for people who live in unfortunate circumstances, newfound sensitivity may give humanitarian flavor to the individuals ideological and political views

Moral personality

Thoughts, behavior, & feelings can all be involved in an individual’s moral personality. 

Cultural perspectives on moral development

Ethic of Autonomy, Ethic of Community, Ethic of Divinity 

Emotion regulation

Effectively managing arousal to adapt to circumstances and to reach a goal

Delayed gratification example

Marshmallow test

Primary emotions

Present in humans and other animals and in humans appear in the first 6 months. Ex - Joy and fear

Self-conscious emotions

Requires self-awareness, consciousness, sense of “me” emerging after 18 months. Ex - Jealousy and empathy

Emotion-coaching

 Parents monitor children’s emotions, view negative emotions as a teaching opportunity, assist them in labeling emotions, and coach them on how to effectively deal with emotions  

What effect does emotion-coaching have on children

Better able to self-soothe, regulating negative affect, better attention

Emotion-dismissing

 parents deny, ignore, or attempt to change negative emotions.

What effect does emotion-dismissing have on children

Poor emotional regulation

Adolescence: Pro Hedonic emotional motivation

Aimed at optimizing positive emotions and minimizing negative ones

Adolescence: Contra-hedonic emotional motivation

Aimed at optimizing negative emotions and minimizing positive ones

Adult and Aging: Socio-emotional selectivity theory

Suggests older adults become more selective about their activities and social relationships in order to maintain social and emotional well-being

Attachment

 a close emotional bond between two people

Stranger anxiety

Fear and wariness of strangers

Separation protest

Crying when the caregiver leaves

Harlow’s classic monkey study

Focused on attachment, showed that infant monkeys preferred a soft, cloth "mother" for comfort, even when a wire "mother" provided food, demonstrating that attachment is based on comfort and contact rather than nourishment. 

Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation

In 1969, the strange situation measures the security of an attachment in 1-2 yr olds. 8 stages each lasting around 3 minutes. 

Stages of Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation

Stage one baby and mom in room with toys researchers are observing whether or not the child feels comfortable to explore the room

Stage two a stranger joins mom and baby

Stage three mom leaves and it is just stranger and baby, researchers are observing if the baby shows separation anxiety 

Stage four mom comes back into room with stranger and baby

Stage five stranger leaves mom and baby alone in room

Stage six mother leaves room leaving baby alone

Stage seven stranger enters room

Stage eight stranger leaves room and mom comes into room with baby

Results of Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation

Infants displayed one of three attachment types 

Secure attachment, ambivalent attachment, or avoidant attachment

What did the secured attachment babies show in the Strange Study

showed distress when separated from mother and avoidant of stranger unless accompanied by mother, happy to see mother after separation, this was 70% of infants studied

What did the ambivalent attachment babies show in the strange study

showed intense distress when separated from mother, significant fear of stranger, rejects contact after separation from mother, this was 15% of infants

what did the avoidant attachment babies show in the strange study

showed no interest when separated from mother, played happily with stranger, ignored mother after separation, 15% of infants