AP Psychology Unit 1

psychology definition and root

the systematic and scientific study of human behavior
Greek - “the study of the soul”

psychology is a...science

social/soft

Socrates and Plato

Mind is separated from the body and continues after we die (dualism)
Knowledge is innate/pre-existing

Aristotle

Plato's student
Knowledge is NOT preexisting, but grows from experience

Hippocrates

4 Humors (black bile, blood, phlegm, yellow bile) mix to create moods

Franz Joseph Gall

Structure of the skull is indication of character and mental abilities

Rene Descartes

“I think, therefore I am.”
Cartesian Dualism (like Socrates and Plato) – distinction between mind and body creates the human experience
thought we had "animal spirits" aka nerves

Mary Calkins

student of William James who became the first female president of the American Psychological Association. She also became a pioneering memory researcher

Margaret Floy Washburn

became the first woman to receive a Ph. D. in Psychology. She also studied animal behavior

Empiricism

the idea that knowledge comes from experience (observation and experimentation)

The Empirical Approach

Curiosity: passion to explore and understand
Skepticism: questioning results, retesting
Humility: understanding humans’ limitations and the possibility for error

Structuralism founder

Edward Titchener (used introspection)

Structuralism

science focused on consciousness (metacognition – thinking about your thinking)

Criticisms of Structuralism

Not authentic – done in a lab
Too much influence from the teacher/leader/observer

Functionalism

studies how the mind allows people to adapt, live, work, and play

Structuralism vs. Functionalism

Structuralists are concerned with the smaller parts (how we ARE), while Functionalists are more concerned with the whole (how we WORK)

Biological Approach

How the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences

Evolutionary Approach

How evolution influences behavior

Charles Darwin and Natural selection: the idea that characteristics of a species evolves in the direction of characteristics that give the fittest organisms a competitive advantage

Criticism of Evolutionary Approach

Controversial, but valid: While evolutionary psychology is valid, strict evolutionists cause controversy by saying this theory is too reliant of nature; should take into account free will

Psychanalytic/psychodynamic Approach

How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts (the unconscious)

Sigmund Freud

Criticism of Psychanalytic Approach

Sigmund Freud and “psychoanalysis”
Dehumanizing

Behavioral Approach

How we learn observable responses (environment)

example of Behavioral Approach

The Case of Little Albert
-Mind as a black box – cannot be opened or understood
-Nature vs. Nurture
-One's environment is a large determinant of behavior
-Mean, abusive, dehumanizing

Criticism of Behavioral Approach

Conditioning, reinforcement
Less emphasis on free will

Humanistic Approach

How we strive for personal growth (positive, optimistic)

Criticism of Humanistic Approach

not the most “scientific”

Cognitive Approach

How we encode, process, store, and retrieve information

Sociocultural Approach

Emphasizes the importance of social interaction, social learning and a cultural perspective

Biopsychosocial Approach (3 main levels)

Biological influence (genes, Natural selection)

Psychological influence (learned fears/expectations, emotional responses)

Social-cultural influences (cultural, societal, and family expectations, media and compelling models)

Gestalt Law

humans have a natural tendency to perceive stimuli as patterns
developed by Max Wertheimer

Eclectic Perspective

No one perspective has all the answers

Psychiatry vs. Psychology

Psychiatrists: hold MDs, have specialized training in the treatment of mental and behavioral problems, can prescribe medication

Psychology (broader field): counseling/teaching/research, specialization may be clinical/counseling/developmental/social/personality/etc.

Scientific Method

developing a hypothesis, performing controlled tests, gathering objective data, analyzing results, publishing/criticizing/replicating results

Operational definition

specifically names the operations (steps or procedures) that the experimenter must use to control or measure the variables in the experiment; allows for replication

Basic vs. Applied Research

Basic research: explores questions that you may be curious about, but is not intended to be immediately used

Applied research: has clear, practical applications

Experimental Research Method

the researcher controls and manipulates the conditions, including the IV

Ex Post Facto Research Method

research in which we choose subjects based on a pre-existing condition (I.e. cancer research)

Surveys (Research Method)

research method in which questions are asked to subjects who report their own answers

Naturalistic Observation (Research Method)

a method by which subjects are observed in their natural environment

Case Studies (Research Method)

detailed picture of one or a few subjects

Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Studies

L: one group studied for an extended period of time
C: people of different age groups are compared

Personal/Experimenter Bias

researcher’s bias

Expectancy Bias

researcher's expectations influence study

Hindsight Bias

“I knew it all along”; overconfidence

The Barnum Effect

tendency to accept very general or vague characterizations of themselves and take them to be accurate

False Consensus Effect

tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

Double-blind Procedure

when neither the participants or the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment; this procedure is utilized to prevent bias in research results

Hawthorne Effect

Some people work harder and perform better when they are participants in an experiment

Confounding Variables: Placebo Effect and Order Effects

Placebo Effect: sometimes the act of taking a pill produces an effect if the person believes the pill is active

Order Effects: the positioning of question or tasks in a survey, test, etc., influences the outcome

Statistical Significance

percent that is due to IV and NOT chance (opposite of P-value)

Inferential Statistics

to discover whether the finding can be applied to the larger population

7 Ethical Guidelines for Human Research

Consent
Deception
Debriefing
Right to withdraw
Protection from harm
Confidentiality
Observation/Privacy

3 Ethical Guidelines for Animal Research

Replacement
Refinement
Reduction

3 Ethical Guidelines for Animal Research: Replacement

animals should be replaced with invertebrates or less responsive alternatives whenever possible

3 Ethical Guidelines for Animal Research: Refinement

regulations should be followed to minimize the harm inflicted on the animals; appropriate anesthesia should be used; animals should be protected from pathogens

3 Ethical Guidelines for Animal Research: Reduction

the number of animals should be minimized; alternative methods to using animals should be used whenever possible

5 Needs for Animal Testing

Justification of Research
Personnel
Acquisition of Animals
Experimental Procedures
Care and Housing

random selection/sample vs. random assignment

random selection: who participates in the study
random assignment: who is in which group