Cognitive Biases

End of History Illusion

We believe we will change less than we have in the past. Ex: 20 year old Kai believes he will not change much by the time he's _ because he has matured so much already

Ben Franklin Effect

Doing someone a favor with little or no external justification can create a more favorable attitude toward that person. A person who has performed a favor for someone is more likely to do another favor for that person than they would be if they had received a favor from that person. When we do a favor, especially for someone we don't necessarily like or are neutral towards, our minds tend to resolve cognitive dissonance between our action (helping) and our previous attitude (indifference/dislike) by rationalizing that we must like the person. This phenomenon suggests that asking for a small favor can be an effective way to increase someone's liking towards you.

Ben Franklin Effect (2)

A psychological phenomenon where a person who has performed a favor for someone is more likely to like that person (and consequently do another favor for them) than if they had received a favor from that person. This effect is attributed to cognitive dissonance, as individuals rationalize their actions by concluding they must like someone if they've gone

Ben Franklin Effect (3)

The psychological phenomenon where a person who has performed a favor for another person is more likely to develop positive feelings toward that person than if they had received a favor from them. This effect is named after Benjamin Franklin, who reportedly used this strategy to win over a political opponent by asking to borrow a rare book. The underlying mechanism is cognitive dissonance: to alleviate the mental discomfort of doing something for someone they might not like, individuals internalize that they must like the person for whom they performed the favor. This rationalization shifts their attitude to align with their actions, suggesting we come to like those we have helped, rather than only helping those we already like. It highlights how our actions can shape our perceptions and feelings.

Ben Franklin Effect

When we do a favor

Ben Franklin Effect

We accept an argument because it supports a conclusion that aligns with our beliefs and values

Declinism (Rosy Retrospection)

We romanticize the past and view the future negatively. Ex: Grandma lives in a state of disappointment. She believed today's young people are lazier than previous generations

Moral Credential Effect

A cognitive bias where past moral actions or a strong ethical self-image subconsciously 'license' individuals to make a less optimal or morally questionable choice. Their prior good behavior acts as a 'moral credential,' justifying or offsetting a subsequent poor decision. For instance, a volunteer might justify a small act of dishonesty by thinking, 'I've done so much good.'

Pessimism Bias

Pessimism bias is a cognitive bias where individuals systematically overestimate the probability and severity of negative outcomes, while underestimating positive ones. This leads to unwarranted expectations of unfavorable results, causing excessive worry or reluctance to act. For instance, a well-prepared student might still expect to fail an exam.

Scope: It is forward-looking, affecting how people predict or anticipate future events. For example, a student believes they'll fail an exam despite being well-prepared.

Optimism Bias

A cognitive bias where we overestimate the likelihood of experiencing positive events and underestimate the likelihood of experiencing negative events compared to others. Ex: Ken has a feeling that he is less likely to get lung cancer than his fellow smokers.

Curse of Knowledge

This cognitive bias describes our tendency to assume that others possess the same background knowledge or understanding that we do. Once we know something, it becomes difficult to imagine what it's like not to know it, hindering our ability to empathize with or effectively communicate with a less-informed perspective. For instance, Sally might struggle to understand why her grandma doesn't grasp common text abbreviations like "WTH," as Sally can no longer easily recall not knowing them.

Mere Exposure Effect

We like things simply because we are familiar with them

Commitment Bias

We remain committed to our past behaviors

Anchoring Bias

We rely heavily on one piece of info (usually the first) when judging something or someone. Ex: Jenna can't stand Josh because Josh stole a cookie from her when they were little kids. He also had the nerve to sell it back to her for $20!

Negativity Bias

Negativity bias is our tendency to notice, focus on, and remember negative information, events, or emotions more strongly than positive or neutral ones, even when they are of equal intensity. For example, if you receive both criticism and praise, the criticism is more likely to stick with you and influence your mood or behavior.

Scope: It typically applies to how we process and remember past or present information. This bias is why negative experiences often have a more significant effect on us than positive ones of similar intensity.

What's the difference between pessimism bias and negative bias?

Negativity bias and pessimism bias are related cognitive biases, but they are distinct in their focus and impact:

Negativity Bias

Definition: Negativity bias is our tendency to notice, focus on, and remember negative information, events, or emotions more strongly than positive or neutral ones, even when they are of equal intensity. For example, if you receive both criticism and praise, the criticism is more likely to stick with you and influence your mood or behavior.

Scope: It typically applies to how we process and remember past or present information. This bias is why negative experiences often have a more significant effect on us than positive ones of similar intensity.

Pessimism Bias

Definition: Pessimism bias is the tendency to overestimate the likelihood of future negative outcomes and underestimate the likelihood of positive outcomes. Someone with a pessimism bias expects that things are more likely to turn out badly, even in situations where positive results are more probable.

Scope: It is forward-looking, affecting how people predict or anticipate future events. For example, a student believes they'll fail an exam despite being well-prepared.

Key Differences

Negativity Bias

Focus: Past/present events (what is noticed, remembered, or emphasized)

Mechanism: Gives greater weight to negative over positive or neutral experiences of equal intensity

Typical Example: Remembering one negative comment instead of multiple positive ones

Pessimism Bias

Focus: Future events (what is expected or predicted)

Mechanism: Expects worst-case or negative scenarios in upcoming situations, regardless of evidence

Typical Example: Expecting to fail an exam despite evidence of adequate preparation

Summary

Negativity bias shapes how we perceive and recall information, skewing us toward the negative in the moment or in memory.

Pessimism bias affects how we anticipate or project into the future, leading us to predict overly negative outcomes, often without rational cause.

While both biases make negative experiences or outcomes more salient, negativity bias concerns our reaction to information, and pessimism bias is about how we judge the future.

Compassion Fade

We feel more compassionate towards a smaller number of identifiable victims than a large number of anonymous victims. Ex: Within hours

Explain 2: You may feel moved to help when you see a news story about one lost child, but feel numb or less compelled to act when you learn thousands are affected by a disaster just hours later.

Status Quo Bias

We like things to stay relatively the same. we perceive any change as a loss. Ex: Charlene refuses to change her phone plan to a new provider that offers the same features for a lower price

IKEA Effect

We place a higher value in things we've partially created ourselves

Hindsight Bias

We perceive past events as having been more predictable than they actually were. Ex: After the underdog football team won

Self Serving Bias

We claim more responsibility for our success than our failures. Ex: Sam believes that she got into Yale because of her hard work

Belief Bias

We accept an argument because it supports a conclusion that aligns with our beliefs and values

Groupthink

We avoid conflict by conforming to the group's decision and withholding differing opinions. Ex: Tyler doesn't want to waste his money on a boring carnival ride

False Consensus Effect

We tend to overestimate how many people agree with our attitudes

Availability Cascade

We increasingly believe in something due to repeated public exposure

Group Attribution Error

Our tendency to believe either the characteristics of an individual group member reflect on the group as a whole or a group decision reflects the preferences of individual group members. Ex: Ivy thinks boys are gross. She knows because her brother farts all the time

Shared Information Bias

Group members tend to spend more time and energy discussing information that more members are familiar with. Ex: After each interviewer shared how much they liked Tom

Outgroup Homogeneity Bias

We see members of our group as more diverse than members of other groups. Ex: "We may all be black & famous

Ambiguity Effect

We favor the known over the unknown. Ex: Andy decided to register for a course taught by a professor with mixed reviews over the same course taught by a new

Confirmation Bias

We focus on or interpret info that fits with our existing beliefs. Ex: Dan believes left-handed people are smarter than right-handed people because the smartest person he knows is left-handed

Dunning-Kruger Effect

We tend to overestimate our knowledge or ability