[AGE5 00] MIDTERM: Unit 3 Lesson 4 Logic and Reasoning

reasoning

• A common way to convince and persuade others is to reason with them, and our ___ must be sound and logical.

• This is borne out of our experience that there is a constancy in the events of our life day in and day out – that night follows day, that the seas will never dry, and that at the end of the rainbow is a pot of gold.

• As human beings, we have brains that enable us to reason in a logical manner and create valid reasons, differentiating us from the lower forms of animals.

• It happens though that sometimes we error in our ___.

• This maybe due to a host of reasons like our emotional state, ignorance, biases, and others.

• When this happens, we become vulnerable and commit flawed ___.

Fallacies

• In the realms of logic and reasoning, we commit ___.

• ___ in general term is an error in reasoning.

• We all have committed using ___ that are “deceptive or wrong arguments” (Espiritu, 2014)

• To avoid using ___, is to learn good reasoning which includes understanding bad reasoning (Espiritu, 2014)

Argumentum against the person

Instead of finding fault on the claim, proposal, or argument, the arguer directs his attack on the character, personality, or belief of his opponent.

Argumentum against the person

Ex. Socrates’ ideas on beauty must be wrong because he was so ugly.

Argument that goes in circle

The arguer evades the real conclusion in new words, making the reasoning circular.

Argument that goes in circle

Ex. Harold’s new book is well written because he is a wonderful writer.

Non sequitor or “It does not follow”

The arguer draws a conclusion not supported by the premises or fails to include assumptions that establish connections between ideas.

Non sequitor or “It does not follow”

Ex. "She is a great singer, so she would make an excellent president."

Argument that uses flattery or praise

Instead of presenting evidence or good reasons, we use praise to get what we want, to make other agree with us, or to seek approval of our arguments.

Argument that uses flattery or praise

Ex. "You're one of the most intelligent people I know, so I'm sure you'll agree with my opinion on this matter."

Argument that appeals to force or threat

• One uses force or threat instead of reason.

• The threat may be physical or psychological.

Argument that appeals to force or threat

Ex. "If you don’t support my decision, you’ll regret it later."

Hasty generalization

• The arguer makes a conclusion based on a few instances or even from one single instance only.

• From one sample, the arguer makes a claim about the whole

Hasty generalization

Ex. "I met two rude people from that city, so everyone there must be rude."

Argument from ignorance

This is arguing that because an arguer cannot prove the argument to be false; therefore, it is true.

Argument from ignorance

Ex. "No one has proven that aliens don’t exist, so they must be real."

Bandwagon argument

• The argument appeals to the beliefs or prejudices of the crowd or masses.

• It justifies that “ might is right” and “many people cannot be wrong”.

• This is widely used in advertisements and political campaigns.

Bandwagon argument

Ex. "Everyone is wearing these new sneakers, so you should buy them too!"

Appeal to pity

Instead of presenting relevant and strong evidence or reasons to support our claim, we resort to evoking pity or sympathy by pointing or referring to an unfortunate circumstance that has befallen us.

Appeal to pity

Ex. "You should give me a good grade on my paper because I worked really hard on it and have been going through a tough time.”

Fallacy of division

We argue that what is true of a whole or class is true to every member

Fallacy of division

Ex. "The basketball team is the best in the league, so every player on the team must be the best in the league."

Appeal unqualified (or inappropriate authority)

• This fallacy is committed when we cite the opinion or judgement of someone who commands respect and reverence but who is not a recognized authority on the subject who is prejudiced in some way.

• We use that person’s reputation or status, even though out of place, to get support for our claim.

Appeal unqualified (or inappropriate authority)

Ex. "My favorite actor says this new medicine works, so it must be effective."

Red herring

• In this argument, instead of addressing the matter under consideration, the arguer introduces an unrelated or irrelevant matter to draw the argument away from the real issue.

• To avoid answering the question.

Red herring

Person A: "We need to talk about reducing pollution in our city.“

Person B: "But what about the rising crime rate? That’s a much bigger issue!"

What is new is good

The arguer contends or makes a case on the belief that what is new is good.

What is new is good

Ex. "You should buy the latest smartphone because it just came out, so it must be better than the previous model."