Urban environments edexcel igcse

Urbanisation definition

The increasing number of people living in urban areas

What economies have the highest levels of overall urbanisation (90%)?

Emerging and developed economies

Where are the lowest levels of urbanisation?

Africa and south east Asia

Hyper-urbanisation definition

High rate of growth in developing countries

In 2008, what happened for the first time in history?

Over 50% of the worlds population lived in urban areas

CBD

Central business district

Sub urbanisation

Increasing in number of people living in the suburbs

Suburbanisation causes

Better transport links between CBD and suburbs

Suburbanisation - CBD push factors

Congestion, overcrowding and pollution

Suburbanisation - Suburban pull factors

Less pollution, greener, more space

Dormitory settlement

Areas on the rural urban fringe where residents mainly sleep and then commute to the CBD for work

Counter urbanisation

Increasing number of people moving out of urban areas to rural areas

What does counter urbanisation encourage

Decentralisation of activities away from the CBD

Gentrification

Central urban areas that were decentralised eg. Old factory/shipping areas that have gone into decline can be redeveloped

Example of urban regeneration/gentrification

Stratford and Olympic park area

Factors affecting the rate of urbanisation

Push and pull factors, rate of population growth, high rates of rural-urban migration, high rates of natural increase, rate for economic development, economies of scale

How many people for a megacity

Over 10 million

Factors affecting the emergence of megacities

River crossing points, estuary mouths, near coast for trade potential, near a mineral resource eg coal, iron, oil

Broader problems associated with rapid urbanisation

Congestion, transport, employment, crime, environmental issues

Problems with rapid urbanisation - housing

Demand is higher than supply, expensive buildings are unsuitable for migrants, instead low cost hosing is needed, residents often end in slums in LICs. Poor transport links, or not enough disposable income to pay for transport mean most needed housing is close to city centre.

Problems with rapid urbanisation - access to water + electricity

Demand is higher than supply. In LIC residents may rely on fuelwood. Streams can be polluted by sewage. Low sanitation provision.

Problems with rapid urbanisation - congestion and transport

Demand is higher than supply. Overcrowded systems lead to smog and air pollution. Lots for noise and visual pollution in cities.

Problems with rapid urbanisation - employment

Many unable to find work once migrated to cities, so end up in the informal sector. Can increase crime rates.

Poverty cycle

——>Children born into poor or impoverished families——> Hunger and malnutrition leads to stunted development and poor health ——> Becomes severely disadvantaged in education and skills ——> Unable to find employment or financial sustainability——> Falls back into poverty and unable to escape the vicious cycle ——>

Factors affecting urban land use patterns

Locational needs, accessibility, land values

Types for urban land use

Residential, commercial, industrial, manufacturing, greenfield, brownfield etc

Factors affecting land value

Urban land market, bid rent theory, PLVI

Urban land market

Sites sold to the highest bidder - retail normally makes the best use of land financially

Bid rent theory

Theory referring to how the price and demand for real estate change. The distance from the CBD increases.

PLVI

Peak land value intersection - land value highest in the CBD, declines outwards with SLVIs around ring roads and major intersections where good transport links enhance land value

Locational needs

Certain businesses may accrete together due to making best use of similar infrastructure needed

Case study - urban challenges in a named developed country

London, UK

London problems with transport and pollution

High NO2 levels due to congestion and idling cars

London problems with energy

London will need 20% more energy by 2050, which cannot necessarily be reached, leading to energy security issues. 1 in 10 households in London are fuel poor (can't afford to keep their homes warm due to a combination of low incomes and high energy costs) This lack of affordable energy puts residents at risk of fuel poverty.

London problems with food

48% of food consumed in the UK is imported. More security checks at the border due to Brexit means an additional cost and increased time to reach the customer. This could further enhance food insecurity due to wealth disparity and deprivation. 8 million people in the UK are at risk of food insecurity.

London problems with waste

London's ecological footprint (demand for natural resources and ability to absorb waste) exceeds its biocapacity (supply) causing ecological deficit. Only 52% of London's waste is currently recycled.

London problems with segregation

Segregation in London by wealth, occupation, ethnicity, stage in family life cycle. 16% of Londoners are in the poorest tenth nationally whilst 17% are in the richest tenth of people in the country showing huge wealth gap. Ethnic segregation could lead to gated communities. Studentification - when neighbourhoods become dominated by student housing.

Possible strategies for making urban life more sustainable in London - transport

-Santander bikes - over 19,000 docking points across London , cycle super highways and bike sheds give faster safer and more direct routes encouraging more people to cycle to work.

-Crossrail (Elizabeth line) west to east line across London, helps regeneration along this route creating more jobs - cost £15 billion projected to add $42 billion of GDP to UK economy

-Hydrogen cell buses to reduce air pollution

-Congestion charge (ULEZ) £15 a day to enter central London. Profit invested into London's transport system and has decreased polluting vehicles in London by 50,000. Reduced N02 emissions by 44%.

Possible strategies for making urban life more sustainable in London - energy

-footfall harvesting

-biofuels - some London taxis run on restaurant oil

Possible strategies for making urban life more sustainable in London - food

-vertical farming and urban gardening increases sustainability of food supply

-food banks, 2000 across the UK, 1.6 million parcels given out each year

Possible strategies for making urban life more sustainable in London - waste

-encourage circular city model (recycling of organic and inorganic waste)

-waste hierarchy, London wants to achieve zero municipal waste direct to landfill by 2025 and reduce household waste to 20% less per household

Possible strategies for making urban life more sustainable in London - segregation

Pepperpot housing - poorer and more affluent residents live in a mixed community through the 'sprinkling' of social housing amongst privately-owned housing

What developments often occur in the rural urban fringe?

Housing estates, retail, business and science parks, industrial estate

Examples of developments that occur in the rural urban fringe

Bluewater, Cambridge university science park

What are the benefits of developments in the rural urban fringe

Land is cheaper, room for expansion, close to transport links to allow export and import of goods

Greenfield site

An area of agricultural or forest land (undeveloped site) which is usually protected from development, but is increasingly being earmarked for commercial development or industrial projects

Brownfield site

Commercial or industrial site, now abandoned. Often environmental contamination that would have to be dealt with prior to redeveloping the site

Greenfield site advantages

- Healthier environment.

- Proximity to countryside, leisure and recreation.

- Layout not hampered by previous development.

- Relatively cheap and rates of house building are faster.

Greenfield site disadvantages

- Valuable farmland and recreational space lost.

- Development causes noise and light pollution.

- Wildlife and their habitats lost.

- Encourages further suburban sprawl.

Brownfield site advantages

- Reduces loss of countryside.

- Helps revive urban areas.

- Services already in place.

- Located near main areas of employment.

Brownfield site disadvantages

- Often more expensive as old building has to be cleared.

- Sometimes surrounded by run down areas so are not appealing to wealthier.

- Higher levels of pollution.

- May not have good access by road.

Case study- urban challenges in a named developing country

Nairobi-Kenya (Kibera)