AP HG U4

State

An independent political unit with defined territory, permanent population, and a government. Ex: France is a state with recognized borders and a functioning government

Nation

A group of people with a shared culture, history, and identity, who may or may not have their own state. Ex: The Kurdish people are a nation without their own state

Nation-State

When a nation and a state occupy the same territory. Ex: Japan is one of the most ethnically homogeneous nation-states in the world

Stateless Nation

A nation without its own sovereign state. Ex: The Palestinian people, the Kurds

Multinational State

A state containing more than one nation. Ex: Canada contains English-speaking and French-speaking nations

Multistate Nation

A nation that spans across multiple states. Ex: The Arab nation spans across many Middle Eastern and North African countries

Sovereignty

The supreme authority of a state over its territory. Ex: North Korea exercises full sovereignty — no foreign laws apply within its borders

Territoriality

A state's attempt to control and defend a defined space. Ex: The US enforcing immigration laws at its borders

Boundary

An imaginary line separating one political unit from another. Ex: The US-Canada border at the 49th parallel

Antecedent Boundary

A boundary drawn before an area was populated. Ex: Many borders in sub-Saharan Africa drawn by Europeans before colonization

Subsequent Boundary

A boundary drawn after an area was settled, based on cultural or ethnic differences. Ex: The border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland

Superimposed Boundary

A boundary forced on an area by an outside power, ignoring existing cultures. Ex: The Berlin Conference of 1884 drew African borders that split ethnic groups

Consequent Boundary

A boundary that follows cultural differences. Ex: The India-Pakistan border after partition separated Hindu and Muslim populations

Relic Boundary

A boundary that no longer exists politically but still has cultural influence. Ex: The former boundary between East and West Germany still shows cultural differences

Geometric Boundary

A straight-line boundary that follows lines of latitude/longitude. Ex: The US-Canada border along the 49th parallel

Physical/Natural Boundary

A boundary based on natural features. Ex: The Pyrenees Mountains form the boundary between France and Spain

Frontier

A zone of territory where boundaries are unclear or disputed. Ex: The Amazon interior was a frontier between Brazil and Bolivia until recently

Compact State

A state with a nearly circular shape, making it easy to govern. Ex: Poland, Hungary

Prorupted State

A state with a mostly compact shape but with a large projecting extension. Ex: Thailand, Namibia

Elongated State

A state with a long, narrow shape, making communication difficult. Ex: Chile, Norway

Fragmented State

A state that is broken into several pieces. Ex: Indonesia (thousands of islands), Philippines

Perforated State

A state that completely surrounds another state. Ex: South Africa surrounds Lesotho

Enclave

A territory completely surrounded by another country's territory. Ex: Lesotho is completely surrounded by South Africa

Exclave

A portion of a state separated from the main territory. Ex: Kaliningrad is a Russian exclave separated from Russia by Lithuania and Belarus

Landlocked State

A state with no access to the ocean. Ex: Bolivia, Switzerland, Landlocked African states that rely on neighbors for trade

Buffer State

A small, neutral country between two rival powers. Ex: Belgium historically served as a buffer between France and Germany

Colonialism

The extension of a state's power over other territories through settlement and economic exploitation. Ex: Britain colonized India, extracting resources and imposing English as a language

Imperialism

The domination of one state over others through political, economic, or military power. Ex: European imperialism carved up Africa in the 19th century

Devolution

The transfer of power from a central government to regional governments. Ex: Scotland and Wales have their own parliaments but are still part of the UK

Balkanization

The fragmentation of a state into smaller, often hostile units. Ex: Yugoslavia broke into Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia, and others in the 1990s

Shatterbelt

A region caught between stronger powers, leading to persistent conflict. Ex: Eastern Europe during the Cold War; the Middle East today

Choke Point

A strategic, narrow passage through which much trade or military movement flows. Ex: The Strait of Hormuz controls much of the world's oil shipment

Geopolitics

The study of how geography influences politics and international relations. Ex: Russia's desire for warm-water ports has influenced its foreign policy for centuries

Heartland Theory (Mackinder)

Whoever controls the Eurasian interior (the "heartland") controls the world. Ex: The USSR controlling the Eurasian heartland was a Cold War geopolitical concern

Rimland Theory (Spykman)

Whoever controls the coastal rimland of Eurasia controls the world. Ex: The US policy of containing Soviet expansion by supporting rimland countries

Electoral Geography

The study of how elections reflect and shape spatial patterns. Ex: The US Electoral College map shows clear regional political divides

Gerrymandering

Manipulating electoral district boundaries to favor one party or group. Ex: "Cracking" Black voters across many districts in southern US states to dilute their voting power

Redistricting

Redrawing electoral district boundaries, usually after a census. Ex: US states redraw congressional districts every 10 years based on census data

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

An international treaty defining rights over ocean territories. Ex: Countries claim a 200-nautical-mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) for fishing and resource rights

Supranationalism

When countries give up some sovereignty to a higher organization. Ex: EU members follow EU laws and use the Euro

Irredentism

A state's claim to territory in another state based on ethnic or historical ties. Ex: Russia's claim to Crimea based on the large Russian-speaking population there

Ethnic Conflict

Conflict between different ethnic groups within or between states. Ex: Hutu-Tutsi conflict in Rwanda leading to genocide in 1994