Relationship Between Media and the Audience

Gerbner’s Cultivation Theory

Long-term exposure to television shapes viewers' perceptions of reality, making them more fearful and distrustful

Klapper’s Reinforcement Theory

Media does not directly change opinions but reinforces existing beliefs and attitudes through selective exposure.

Newson

Violent media could desensitise audiences and lead to copycat violence; influenced the 1990s debates on media censorship.

Gauntlett

Media effects are often exaggerated and audiences are active, capable of interpreting and resisting media messages.

Katz and Lazarsfeld’s Two Step Flow Model

Media messages are filtered through opinion leaders who then influence others, meaning media has an indirect effect.

Blumler and McQuail’s Uses and Gratifications Model

Audiences are active and use media to satisfy needs such as escapism, personal identity, social integration, and entertainment

Hall’s Reception Model

Suggested audiences interpret media in different ways: dominant, negotiated, or oppositional readings

Glasgow University Media Group’s Cultural Effects Model

Media influence is slow and long term, having a drip-drip effect and repeating hegemonic values to make them seem normal. Audiences are active but shaped over time

Philo

While some audiences resist messages, media power is significant — especially when people lack alternative sources of information.