Period 1: Context, Native Societies, European Exploration, Columbian Exchange, Labor & Culture (1.1–1

What was the timeframe overview for Period 1?

Late prehistory to the early modern era shaped by migrations, trade networks, and expanding empires.

When did major migrations of Asian peoples to the Americas occur?

12,000–14,000 years ago.

What characterized the development of Native American societies by the 14th–15th centuries?

Major networks connected Mississippian Indians, the Aztecs, and the Incas; the Aztecs and Incas thrived into the late 1400s.

What political and economic advances fueled European exploration in the 15th century?

Economic, cultural, and political advances fueled long-distance trade.

Which countries led the early exploration efforts in the 15th century?

Portugal and Italy.

What was the primary goal of Spain regarding exploration in the late 15th century?

To seek access to China and the Indies by sailing west, which led to contact with the Americas.

What were some initial consequences of contact between Native Americans and Europeans?

Native Americans traded and formed alliances, but many fought invaders; Europeans introduced plants, animals, and diseases.

What labor shifts occurred from the 1490s–1590s due to population decline?

Europeans increasingly turned to enslaved Africans for labor in profitable crops.

What were some key cultural groups in North America?

Hohokam, Pueblo, Ute, Mandan, Chumash, Haudenosaunee, Hopewell, and Cahokia.

What was the significance of maize agriculture in Native American societies?

It enabled large, complex societies in Central America and the Andes.

How did geography influence the diversity of Native American societies?

Central and Andean regions supported large empires; Eastern woodlands and plains featured smaller communities.

What was the encomienda system?

A labor system where Spanish leaders received land and the labor of Native Americans, leading to exploitation.

What was the caste system in Spanish colonies?

A hierarchy organized by racial ancestry, including Peninsulares, Criollos, Mestizos, Mulattos, Indigenous peoples, and Africans.

What was the Columbian Exchange?

A biological exchange of people, crops, animals, and diseases between the Americas and the rest of the world.

What were the consequences of the Columbian Exchange for Native American populations?

Demographic collapse due to European germs, known as the Great Dying.

Who was Malintzin (La Malinche)?

A Nahuatl-speaking indigenous woman who acted as a translator and diplomat for Cortés.

What did the Valladolid debates represent?

Debates on the humanity and treatment of indigenous peoples, including arguments from Las Casas and Sepúlveda.

What was the significance of Potosí in the Spanish colonial system?

A major silver mining center symbolizing wealth extraction and labor exploitation.

How did the mission system impact Pueblo regions post-1573?

It aimed to convert Natives to Catholicism and integrate them into colonial economies, often harming traditional practices.

What factors contributed to the rise of racialized slavery in the Americas?

The demand for labor in mines and plantations where Native Americans were initially enslaved, followed by enslaved Africans.

What was the role of early navigation advancements in European exploration?

Improvements in shipbuilding, navigation tools, and maritime knowledge allowed for more extensive exploration.

What was the timeframe overview for Period 1?

Late prehistory to the early modern era shaped by migrations, trade networks, and expanding empires.

When did major migrations of Asian peoples to the Americas occur?

12,000–14,000 years ago.

What characterized the development of Native American societies by the 14th–15th centuries?

Major networks connected Mississippian Indians, the Aztecs, and the Incas; the Aztecs and Incas thrived into the late 1400s.

What political and economic advances fueled European exploration in the 15th century?

Economic, cultural, and political advances fueled long-distance trade.

Which countries led the early exploration efforts in the 15th century?

Portugal and Italy.

What was the primary goal of Spain regarding exploration in the late 15th century?

To seek access to China and the Indies by sailing west, which led to contact with the Americas.

What were some initial consequences of contact between Native Americans and Europeans?

Native Americans traded and formed alliances, but many fought invaders; Europeans introduced plants, animals, and diseases.

What labor shifts occurred from the 1490s–1590s due to population decline?

Europeans increasingly turned to enslaved Africans for labor in profitable crops.

What were some key cultural groups in North America?

Hohokam, Pueblo, Ute, Mandan, Chumash, Haudenosaunee, Hopewell, and Cahokia.

What was the significance of maize agriculture in Native American societies?

It enabled large, complex societies in Central America and the Andes.

How did geography influence the diversity of Native American societies?

Central and Andean regions supported large empires; Eastern woodlands and plains featured smaller communities.

What was the encomienda system?

A labor system where Spanish leaders received land and the labor of Native Americans, leading to exploitation.

What was the caste system in Spanish colonies?

A hierarchy organized by racial ancestry, including Peninsulares, Criollos, Mestizos, Mulattos, Indigenous peoples, and Africans.

What was the Columbian Exchange?

A biological exchange of people, crops, animals, and diseases between the Americas and the rest of the world.

What were the consequences of the Columbian Exchange for Native American populations?

Demographic collapse due to European germs, known as the Great Dying.

Who was Malintzin (La Malinche)?

A Nahuatl-speaking indigenous woman who acted as a translator and diplomat for Cortés.

What did the Valladolid debates represent?

Debates on the humanity and treatment of indigenous peoples, including arguments from Las Casas and Sepúlveda.

What was the significance of Potosí in the Spanish colonial system?

A major silver mining center symbolizing wealth extraction and labor exploitation.

How did the mission system impact Pueblo regions post-1573?

It aimed to convert Natives to Catholicism and integrate them into colonial economies, often harming traditional practices.

What factors contributed to the rise of racialized slavery in the Americas?

The demand for labor in mines and plantations where Native Americans were initially enslaved, followed by enslaved Africans.

What was the role of early navigation advancements in European exploration?

Improvements in shipbuilding, navigation tools, and maritime knowledge allowed for more extensive exploration.

Who was Cortés?

A Spanish conquistador for whom Malintzin served as a translator and diplomat during contact with indigenous peoples.

Who was Bartolomé de las Casas?

A key participant in the Valladolid debates, arguing for the humanity and better treatment of indigenous peoples.

Who was Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda?

A key participant in the Valladolid debates, arguing against the humanity and for the subjugation of indigenous peoples.