Roman Empire Final

Hippocrates

was a Greek physician who lived during the Classical period of Ancient Greece, around 460–370 BCE. He is traditionally regarded as the "Father of Medicine" due to his lasting influence on the practice and philosophy of medicine in the Western world.

Galen

was a Greek physician, surgeon, and philosopher who practiced in the Roman Empire. He is one of the most influential figures in the history of medicine, second only to Hippocrates in classical antiquity.

Elagabalus

• Became emperor through support of grandmother Julia Maesa after claiming to be Caracalla’s son.

• High priest of Elagabal, a Syrian sun god; tried to promote this cult in Rome.

• Alienated traditional Roman religious and political elites.

• Known for eccentric behavior and reported gender nonconformity (sources may be biased).

• Assassinated by the Praetorian Guard at age 18; succeeded by cousin Severus Alexander.

Alexander Severus

• Became emperor after the assassination of Elagabalus (his cousin).

• Rule dominated by his mother Julia Mamaea, who acted as regent and advisor.

• Tried to restore stability and reform the empire with guidance from the Senate.

• Promoted religious tolerance and admired Christian teachings (though not a Christian himself).

• Sought to appease the military but was seen as too weak or indecisive during crises.

Sassanid Empire

(224–651 CE)
Founded by: Ardashir I, who defeated the last Parthian king in 224 CE.
Capital: Ctesiphon (near modern Baghdad)
Religion: Officially Zoroastrianism (closely tied to the state)

• Revival of Persian power after the Parthian Empire

• Strong centralized government and bureaucracy

• Frequent wars with the Roman and Byzantine Empires

• Cultural golden age in art, architecture, and science

• Promoted Persian identity and traditions, often in contrast to Greek/Roman influence

• Conquered by Arab Muslim armies during the Islamic expansion in 651 CE, marking the end of pre-Islamic Persia.

Palmyrene Empire

(c. 260–273 CE)
Founded By: Odaenathus (de facto ruler under Rome)
Key Ruler: Queen Zenobia (ruled 267–273 CE)

• Formed during the Crisis of the Third Century, when Roman central authority weakened.

• Originally loyal to Rome, Palmyra acted as a buffer against Sassanid Persia.

• After Odaenathus’s death, Zenobia took power as regent for her son Vaballathus.

• Under Zenobia, Palmyra expanded rapidly, taking control of much of the Eastern Roman provinces: Syria, Egypt, and parts of Asia Minor.

• Zenobia declared independence from Rome around 270 CE and adopted imperial titles.

• Emperor Aurelian reconquered the East and defeated Zenobia in 272 CE.

• Palmyra was reintegrated into the Roman Empire, and a later revolt in 273 led to the city's destruction by Aurelian.

Queen Zenobia

• Led military campaigns that expanded Palmyrene control over Syria, Egypt, and parts of Asia Minor.

• Claimed descent from Cleopatra and presented herself as a powerful, cultured, and Hellenistic monarch.

• Challenged Rome by assuming imperial titles and breaking away during the Crisis of the Third Century.

• Defeated by Roman Emperor Aurelian in 272 CE.

• Captured while fleeing to the Euphrates; taken to Rome.

• Her fate is uncertain—some sources say she was paraded in Aurelian’s triumph and lived in exile, others say she was executed.

Emperor Aurelian

reigned 270–275 CE)

• Reunified the Roman Empire during the Crisis of the Third Century:

  • Defeated the Palmyrene Empire (Zenobia) in the East (272 CE).

  • Defeated the Gallic Empire in the West (274 CE).

• Strengthened the empire’s borders, including building the Aurelian Walls around Rome.

• Reformed the currency to combat economic instability.

• Promoted the cult of Sol Invictus (the Unconquered Sun) as a unifying imperial religion, foreshadowing the later rise of monotheism in the empire.

• Assassinated by his own officers in 275 CE while preparing for a campaign against Persia.

Emperor Diocletian

Reigned 284-305 AD

• Ended the Crisis of the Third Century: Stabilized the Roman Empire after a period of civil wars, military anarchy, and economic crisis.

• Tetrarchy: Established the Tetrarchy in 293 CE, dividing the empire into four regions, each ruled by a co-emperor to provide more effective governance (two senior emperors or Augusti and two junior emperors or Caesars).

  • Administrative Reorganization: Divided the empire into smaller provinces to improve management and defense.

  • Tax Reforms: Standardized taxation to increase imperial revenue.

  • Military Reforms: Strengthened the army, creating new mobile field units and fortifying the empire’s borders.

  • Economic Measures: Tried to control inflation by introducing the Edict on Maximum Prices in 301 CE, which aimed to stabilize prices but had limited success.

Persecution of Christians:

• is known for launching the Great Persecution (303–311 CE) against Christians, attempting to suppress Christianity through laws that banned Christian worship and demanded sacrifices to Roman gods. This was the most severe persecution in Roman history, though it ultimately failed to eradicate Christianity.

• abdicated voluntarily in 305 CE, becoming the first emperor to do so. He retired to his palace in Split (modern-day Croatia), where he lived until his death in 311 CE.

Vitruvius

• Wrote the De Architectura the only surviving major work on architecture from antiquity. It covers a wide range of topics, from construction techniques to city planning, and it remained a critical reference for architects throughout history.

• Introduced the concept of proportion and the “Vitruvian principles” (firmitas, utilitas, venustas):

  • Firmitas (Durability): A building must be solid and lasting.

  • Utilitas (Utility): A building must be functional for its purpose.

  • Venustas (Beauty): A building must be aesthetically pleasing, incorporating harmony and proportion.

Septimius Severus

Born in Leptis Magna (modern-day Libya), rose from a military background and became emperor after a period of civil war known as the Year of the Five Emperors.

• Conducted successful campaigns in Britain, securing the Antonine Wall and pushing into Scotland.

• Fought and defeated the Parthian Empire, securing Roman dominance in the East.

• Legal Reforms: He strengthened the imperial bureaucracy and promoted legal reforms that focused on the emperor’s authority over the Senate.

• died in 211 CE while campaigning in Britain.

Caracalla

(reigned 211–217 CE)
Background: Son of Septimius Severus and Julia Domna,was named co-emperor with his brother Geta after their father’s death. The brothers had a notoriously violent relationship.

• Murder of Geta: had his brother Geta murdered in 211 CE, consolidating sole power.

• Constitution of Caracalla (212 CE): Issued the Edict of Caracalla, which granted Roman citizenship to nearly all free men within the empire, dramatically increasing the number of Roman citizens and securing more tax revenue.

• Military Focus: wass known for his focus on the military, particularly pay raises for soldiers, which increased their loyalty to him but also drained the treasury.

• Expansion in the East: He conducted campaigns in the East, particularly against the Parthian Empire, though these were not particularly successful.

• Built the Baths of Caracalla in Rome, one of the largest and most impressive public bath complexes in the empire.

• was assassinated in 217 CE by a member of his own guard, Macrinus, while he was on campaign in the East.

Geta

of Septimius Severus and Julia Domna, Geta was the younger brother of Caracalla. He was named co-emperor with Caracalla in 209 CE, following their father’s death in 211 CE.

Was murdered by Brother Caracalla, received Damnatio memoriae

Julia Domna

• was a powerful political figure during her husband’s reign. She played an important role in the administration and was deeply involved in the governance of the empire.

• Mother of Two Emperors: She was the mother of Caracalla and Geta, both of whom would become emperors, though her relationship with them was strained due to their rivalry.

• Regent: After the death of her husband in 211 CE, she continued to hold significant influence during the early years of her sons’ reigns, especially in their conflict and eventual murder of Geta.

Socrates

(470–399 BC)

• Philosopher from Athens, widely regarded as one of the founders of Western philosophy.

• Known for developing the Socratic Method—a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue aimed at stimulating critical thinking and drawing out ideas and underlying assumptions.

• Did not write any of his own teachings; most of what we know about him comes from the writings of his students, primarily Plato and Xenophon, as well as other contemporaries like Aristophanes.

• In 399 BCE, he was put on trial by the Athenian court on charges of impiety (disrespecting the gods) and corrupting the youth of Athens.

• He was convicted and sentenced to death. Rather than flee into exile, he chose to face his death by drinking poison, famously accepting his fate with calmness, reflecting his philosophical principles about life and death.

Plato

(c. 428–348 BC)

Student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle.

• Theory of Forms (Ideas): He proposed that the material world is just a shadow of the true reality, which consists of perfect, eternal Forms or Ideas. For example, a beautiful object is beautiful because it participates in the perfect Form of Beauty.

• The Republic: His most famous work, in which he describes his vision of a just society. In this dialogue, he presents his philosophical ideas on justice, governance, education, and the nature of the soul. He advocates for a society ruled by philosopher-kings, those who understand the Forms and are thus fit to rule wisely.

• The Allegory of the Cave: A metaphor for human ignorance and enlightenment. Prisoners in a cave perceive only shadows of the outside world and mistake them for reality. When one prisoner escapes and sees the true world, he understands that what he knew before was false. This allegory illustrates his belief in the philosopher’s role in discovering true knowledge.

• The Academy: He founded the Academy in Athens, one of the first institutions of higher learning in the Western world, which influenced generations of philosophers, including Aristotle.

Aristotle

Student of Plato and tutor to Alexander the Great.

He focused on the physical world and empirical observation. He believed that knowledge comes from experience and observation of the natural world.

Marcus Aurelius

Roman Emperor from 161–180 CE

One of the Five Good Emperors and a philosopher-king.

Born into a noble family and adopted by Emperor Antoninus Pius in 138 CE, making him the heir to the throne.

• Co-Emperor with Lucius Verus (161–169 CE): He shared power with his adoptive brother Lucius Verus until Verus’s death.

• Military Leadership: He spent much of his reign defending the empire from external threats, particularly along the Danube frontier where he fought the Marcomannic Wars (166–180 CE), a series of conflicts with Germanic tribes.

• Philosophical Leadership: Despite the pressures of ruling an empire at war, he is best known for his Stoic philosophy, which he wrote about in his personal journal, later known as the Meditations.

Lucius Verus

(130–169 CE)
Co-emperor of Rome from 161–169 CE, alongside Marcus Aurelius— the first time in Roman history two emperors ruled jointly with equal authority.

• Parthian War (161–166 CE): Lucius Verus oversaw Rome’s campaign against the Parthian Empire in the East. Although generals did most of the fighting, the campaign was successful and brought prestige to the empire.

• Spread of Plague: Troops returning from the East likely brought back the Antonine Plague, a deadly epidemic that devastated the Roman population for years.

Antoninus Pius

• (reigned 138–161 CE) was a Roman emperor and one of the "Five Good Emperors" of the Roman Empire.

• His reign is noted for its peace, stability, and efficient governance—he ruled without major military conflict.

• Adopted by Emperor Hadrian and became his successor in 138 CE.

• In turn, he adopted Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus as his heirs, continuing the tradition of adoptive succession among the good emperors.

Faustina the Elder

• was the wife of Emperor Antoninus Pius and Roman Empress from 138 to 141 CE.

• She was renowned for her virtue, dignity, and charitable works, and was highly honored both during and after her life.

Commodus

• was a Roman emperor, the son of Marcus Aurelius, and the first emperor born to a reigning emperor.

• His reign marked the beginning of Rome’s decline from the relative stability of the Five Good Emperors.

Hadrian

• (reigned 117–138 CE) was a Roman emperor, known for his administrative reforms, love of Greek culture, and efforts to consolidate and fortify the empire rather than expand it.

• One of the “Five Good Emperors”, his reign was marked by peace, prosperity, and monumental architecture.

• Chose to stabilize the empire’s frontiers instead of expanding them.

• Best known for building Hadrian’s Wall in Britain to mark the northern limit of the Roman Empire.

• Strengthened defenses in other provinces and improved troop discipline.

A dedicated Philhellene, Hadrian deeply admired and promoted Greek art, architecture, and philosophy.

Antinous

• was a Greek youth from Bithynia (modern-day Turkey) and the beloved companion of Emperor Hadrian.

• After his mysterious death, he was deified by Hadrian, becoming the center of a widespread imperial cult.

Hadrian’s Wall

• A massive defensive fortification built in northern Britain under Emperor Hadrian around 122 CE.

• Marked the northern boundary of the Roman Empire in Britain and served as a military and administrative border.

Maximian

• (reigned 286–305 CE) was a Roman emperor and co-ruler with Diocletian as part of the Tetrarchy system.

• He held the title of Augustus of the Western Roman Empire, while Diocletian ruled the East.

Constantius

• reigned 293–306 CE) was a Roman emperor and one of the original Caesars in Diocletian’s Tetrarchy.

• Father of Constantine the Great.

• Appointed Caesar (junior emperor) in 293 CE under Maximian, who was Augustus of the West.

• Tasked with ruling the western provinces: Gaul, Britain, and Spain.

Galerius

• (reigned 305–311 CE) was a Roman emperor and an important figure in the Tetrarchy, originally appointed as Caesar under Diocletian in 293 CE.

• Later became Augustus of the East and played a major role in the persecutions of Christians and the transition of power to Constantine.

Severus

• (reigned 193–211 CE) was a Roman emperor who founded the Severan dynasty.

• His reign marked the end of the crisis of the 3rd century and the beginning of a new imperial era focused on military strength and stability.

• Was a senator and held various military and administrative positions before being proclaimed emperor in 193 CE after the death of Commodus, during the Year of the Five Emperors.

Licinius

• was a Roman emperor who ruled parts of the Eastern Roman Empire from 308 to 324 CE.

• Initially an ally of Constantine the Great, he later became his rival in a struggle for sole control over the Roman Empire.

Maximin Daia

• was a Roman emperor who ruled from 310 to 313 CE.

• He was one of the key figures during the Tetrarchy, the system of rule established by Emperor Diocletian that divided the Roman Empire into regions governed by multiple emperors.

• became one of the Caesars (junior emperors) under Galerius after the division of the Roman Empire into the Tetrarchy system.

• When Galerius died in 311 CE, he claimed the title of Augustus in the eastern part of the empire, though his rule was contested by other claimants.

Constantine

• was a Roman emperor who reigned from 306 to 337 CE.

• He is most famous for being the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity and for making Christianity the favored religion of the Roman Empire.

Josephus

• 7-100 CE) was a Jewish historian, military leader, and philosopher during the 1st century CE.

• He is most famous for his writings on the history of the Jewish people, especially during the First Jewish-Roman War (66-73 CE), which led to the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem.

Jesus Christ

• is the central figure of Christianity, regarded by Christians as the Son of God and the Savior of humanity.

• He was born around 4 BCE to 6 CE in Bethlehem, in the region of Judea (modern-day Israel), and lived in the Roman Empire during the 1st century CE.

• He was sentenced to crucifixion under Pontius Pilate, a Roman governor, and died on the cross around 30-36 CE.

Antonine Plague

• was a devastating pandemic that struck the Roman Empire from 165 CE to 180 CE.

• It was named after the Antonine dynasty, under which Emperor Marcus Aurelius and Empress Lucilla reigned.

Cyprian Plague

• was a major pandemic that struck the Roman Empire during the reign of Emperor Valerian in the 3rd century CE, between 250-270 CE.

• It was named after Pope Cyprian, a Christian bishop of Carthage, who documented the effects of the plague in his writings.

Justinian Plague

• was a devastating outbreak of bubonic plague that struck the Byzantine Empire in 541 CE, during the reign of Emperor Justinian I.

• It is considered one of the deadliest pandemics in history, killing millions of people across Europe, Asia, and North Africa.

Aurelian Walls

• ere a series of defensive fortifications built around Rome during the reign of Emperor Aurelian (270-275 CE).

• They were constructed to protect the city from increasing threats during a period of crisis, particularly from Germanic tribes, Goths, and other barbarian groups.

Law of Superposition

is a fundamental principle in stratigraphy (the study of rock layers or strata) that states:

• In undisturbed layers of rock or sediment, the oldest layers are found at the bottom, and the youngest layers are at the top.

Statigraphy

• is the branch of geology and archaeology that studies rock layers (strata) and their sequence, primarily to understand the chronology and history of geological formations or archaeological sites.

• It helps scientists and archaeologists establish timelines of events, changes in the environment, or human activity.

Pompeii

• was a Roman city located near Mount Vesuvius in southern Italy.

• The city was destroyed and buried under 10 to 20 feet of volcanic ash, pumice, and debris during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE.

Mount Vesuvius

• is most famous for its catastrophic eruption in 79 CE, which destroyed the Roman cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and other surrounding settlements.

• The eruption buried these cities under ash, pumice, and volcanic material, preserving them for centuries and providing valuable archaeological insights into daily life in ancient Rome.

Hypocaust system

• as an ancient Roman system of underfloor heating, used primarily in public baths, private homes, and thermae (bathhouses).

• It was a significant technological advancement in Roman engineering, providing warmth and comfort during colder months.

Leptis Magna

• was a major Roman city located in modern-day Libya, along the Mediterranean coast. It was one of the most important cities in Roman North Africa and a key port in the Roman Empire.

• It flourished from the 1st century BCE to the 3rd century CE, particularly during the reign of Emperor Septimius Severus, who was born in the city.

Baths of Caracalla

• were one of the largest public baths in ancient Rome, built between 212 and 217 CE during the reign of Emperor Caracalla.

• They were part of a larger trend of monumental bath complexes in Rome, intended to serve as both social gathering spaces and public amenities.

Presocratics

• were early Greek philosophers who lived before Socrates (c. 570–400 BCE) and laid the foundations for Western philosophy.

• They sought to explain the nature of the cosmos, the origins of the universe, and the principles underlying reality, primarily through reason and observation rather than mythological or religious explanations.

Stoicism

• is a philosophical school founded by Zeno of Citium around 300 BCE in Athens.

• teaches that virtue (living in accordance with reason) is the highest good, and that human beings should strive to develop inner self-control, wisdom, and virtue to achieve a life of tranquility, regardless of external circumstances.

Epicureanism

• philosophical system founded by the Greek philosopher Epicurus (341–270 BCE).

• It teaches that pleasure is the highest good and the goal of human life, but it defines pleasure as the absence of pain (ataraxia) and simple, moderate enjoyment rather than indulgence in physical excess.

Logos

• is a complex term in ancient Greek philosophy and theology, often translated as "word," "reason," "principle," or "discourse".

Marcomannic Wars

• were a series of conflicts fought between the Roman Empire and various Germanic tribes (specifically the Marcomanni, Quadi, Sarmatians, and other tribes) along the Danube River in the late 2nd century CE.

• These wars are often considered a major challenge to Roman power in the Danubian frontier and were fought during the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161–180 CE).

Column of Marcus Aurelius

• is a victory monument in Rome, dedicated to the emperor Marcus Aurelius and his military campaigns, particularly his wars against the Germanic tribes (the Marcomannic Wars).

• Located in Piazza Colonna, the column was erected in c. 180 CE to celebrate Marcus Aurelius’ military achievements.

Panhellenic Games

• were a series of ancient Greek athletic festivals held in honor of the gods, and they brought together participants from across the Greek world.

• They were considered some of the most important religious and athletic events in the ancient Greek world, emphasizing physical prowess and the relationship between man and the gods.

Circus Maximus

• was a large, ancient Roman chariot racing stadium located in the valley between the Aventine and Palatine Hills in Rome.

• It was the largest and oldest of the Roman circuses, primarily used for chariot races, but also for other public events like gladiatorial games, public spectacles, and festivals.

munus/munera

• In ancient Rome, referred to public duties or obligations, often associated with games and spectacles.

• The term specifically came to be used for gladiatorial games and other forms of public entertainment, often organized by wealthy individuals or politicians as part of their social and political responsibilities.

• Gladiatorial Games: The most famous type of munera were the gladiatorial games held in arenas like the Colosseum. These games were often organized by Roman elites as a way to gain public favor and political support.

• Chariot Races: Public events like chariot races in the Circus Maximus were also considered munera, as they were organized as a form of entertainment and civic duty.

• Public Feasts and Shows: Other forms of public entertainment, including theatrical performances, public feasts, and animal hunts, could also be classified as munera, depending on their scale and purpose.

Phihellene

• the term Phihellene (Greek: Φιέλληνες) means "friend of the Greeks" or "Greek-loving".

• It was used to describe individuals, especially Romans, who had a deep admiration for Greek culture, philosophy, and customs, and often promoted the integration of Greek ideas into Roman society.

Pantheon

• A Roman temple dedicated to all the gods of Ancient Rome, known for its remarkable architecture and exceptional preservation.

• Located in Rome, it is one of the best-preserved ancient Roman buildings and has been in continuous use since its construction.

• Commissioned by Marcus Agrippa in 27 BCE during the reign of Augustus, the original Pantheon was later rebuilt by Emperor Hadrian around 118-125 CE after a fire destroyed the original.

Pontifex Maximus

• The highest religious office in ancient Rome, responsible for overseeing the pontifical college and the religious practices of the Roman state.

• The title Pontifex Maximus translates roughly to "chief bridge builder", symbolizing the role of the officeholder in maintaining the connection between the Roman people and the gods.

Lares

• were guardian spirits in ancient Roman religion, associated with protecting the home, family, and community.

• Considered household deities, they were believed to protect individuals and their households from harm and misfortune.

Roman sacrifice

• were made for various purposes, such as military success, good harvests, or averting disasters.

• Animal Sacrifice: The most common form, typically involving cattle, sheep, pigs, or birds like chickens.

• Libations: Pouring wine, milk, or oil as an offering to the gods.

• Incense: Burned as part of the sacrificial ritual to honor the gods.

• Public and Private: Public sacrifices were often held in temples for the state or specific deities, while private sacrifices were held in households or at family shrines.

Tetrarchy

(293–313 CE)

• A system of government established by Emperor Diocletian to manage the vast Roman Empire more effectively.

• The Tetrarchy divided the empire into four rulers: two Augusti (senior emperors) and two Caesares (junior emperors).

Diocese

• referred to a territorial division of the Roman Empire, administered by a vicar (a high-ranking official).

• In the context of the Tetrarchy (late 3rd century CE), Diocletian reorganized the empire into smaller groupings for more efficient governance, grouping provinces under each diocesan head.

• After the conversion of Constantine I and the rise of Christianity, the term was adopted by the Christian Church to represent a territorial district under the authority of a bishop.

Augusti

In the Tetrarchy system (introduced by Diocletian in 293 CE), the term Augustus was used for the senior emperors who ruled each half of the empire (East and West), while Caesars were their junior counterparts.

Caesari

• In the Late Roman Empire, Caesar referred to the junior emperor, second in command to the Augustus (senior emperor).

• The title was institutionalized under Diocletian’s Tetrarchy (established in 293 CE).

Porphyry Marble

• A deep purple, igneous stone with white crystal flecks, highly prized in the Roman Empire for its rarity, color, and durability.

• From Egyt

Diocletian’s Palace

(Built ca. 295–305 CE)
What It Was:

• A massive fortified palace and retirement residence built by Emperor Diocletian in the city of Split, in modern-day Croatia (then part of the Roman province of Dalmatia).

• Built like a roman military garrison

• Stayed there when he retired in 305 AD

Battle of Milvian Bridge

312 AD

• A decisive battle between Constantine I and Maxentius for control of the Western Roman Empire.

• Took place near the Milvian Bridge, a key crossing over the Tiber River just outside Rome.

• Part of the civil wars during the Tetrarchy, a time of internal struggle among Roman emperors.

• Maxentius had claimed imperial power in Rome; Constantine marched to challenge him.

Edict of Milan

• A proclamation issued by Emperors Constantine I (West) and Licinius (East) that granted religious tolerance throughout the Roman Empire, especially for Christianity.

• Legalized Christianity: Christians could worship freely without fear of persecution.

• Restored confiscated property: Churches and Christian individuals had their seized property returned.

• Religious freedom for all: Not limited to Christians—acknowledged the rights of all individuals to worship as they chose.

Byzantium/ Constantinople

The capital city of the Roman, Byzantine, and later Ottoman Empires, founded by Emperor Constantine I in 330 CE.

Arch of Constantine

Dedicated 315 AD

• A triumphal arch in Rome, located near the Colosseum.

• Built to commemorate Emperor Constantine I’s victory over Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 CE.

Apostasy

is the act of abandoning or renouncing one’s religion, especially after having previously professed it.

Council of Nicaea

325 AD

• The first ecumenical council of the Christian Church, called by Emperor Constantine I in the city of Nicaea (in modern-day Turkey).

• A major gathering of bishops from across the Roman Empire to define Christian doctrine and unify the Church.

• Resolve the Arian Controversy: Addressed the teachings of Arius, who claimed that Jesus Christ was not equal to God the Father, but a created being.

312 AD

• is most famous for the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, a pivotal moment in the reign of Emperor Constantine.

• The battle marked the beginning of Constantine’s rise to sole rule over the Roman Empire and was a turning point in the Christianization of the Roman Empire.

Crisis of the Third Century

(235–284 AD)

• was a period of military, political, and economic turmoil in the Roman Empire lasting from 235 to 284 AD.

• This era was marked by civil war, economic instability, foreign invasions, and a collapse in imperial authority, leading to the near breakdown of the empire.