ALL AP PSYCH

dispositional attribution

explaining someone's behavior or an event by attributing it to internal factors, such as personality traits, beliefs, or abilities, rather than external factors or the situation

when are we most likely to conform?

• When we feel incompetent or insecure.

• Are with a group of at least 3 people.

• Are in a group where everyone else agrees.

• Admire the group’s status or physical attractiveness.

situational attribution

explaining an event or behavior by attributing it to external factors or circumstances, rather than an individual's internal characteristics or personality

explanatory styles

an individual's habitual way of explaining the causes and impact of events, particularly negative ones, and can be either pessimistic or optimistic

• the way a person creates a narrative about a specific event in their life

optimistic explanatory style

the tendency to explain negative events as external, unstable, and specific, meaning they are not one's fault, temporary, and limited to a specific situation.

pessimistic explanatory style

the tendency to explain negative events as internal, stable, and global, meaning they are one's fault, long-lasting, and affect many areas of life.

actor-observer bias

the tendency to attribute our own behavior to external factors while attributing others' behavior to internal traits

about perspective—people excuse their own behavior situationally but judge others based on personality traits.

• If you slip on a wet floor, you blame it on the floor being slippery (external factor).

• If someone else slips, you assume they are clumsy (internal trait).

• If you miss a deadline, you might explain, "I had too many tasks to juggle."

• If a coworker misses a deadline, you might assume, "They're just lazy or bad at time management."

fundamental attribution error

the tendency to overemphasize personal traits and underestimate situational factors when explaining others' behavior

• If a cashier is rude, you assume they have a bad personality (internal trait) rather than considering they might be having a bad day (situational factor).

self-serving bias

the tendency to credit success to internal factors (like ability or effort) and blame failure on external factors.

about protecting self-esteem in success and failure

• Example: If you ace a test, you say it's because you're smart. If you fail, you blame the teacher or the test being unfair.

internal locus of control

refers to the belief that individuals have control over the outcomes of their actions, and that their successes or failures are due to their own efforts and decisions.

• Example: Believing that you did well on a test because you studied hard.

external locus of control

refers to the belief that outcomes are determined by external factors, such as luck, fate, or the actions of others, rather than one's own efforts.

• Example: Believing that you failed a test because the teacher made it unfair or because you were unlucky.

mere exposure effect

refers to the phenomenon where people tend to develop a preference for something simply because they are repeatedly exposed to it.

• Example: You may start to like a song more after hearing it multiple times on the radio.

self-fulfilling prophecy

• When we behave in ways that confirm other people’s expectations of us.

• Sometimes called the Pygmalion (Rosenthal) Effect (1968)

  • Students performed better when they were expected to do so.

social comparison

refers to the process of evaluating oneself in relation to others to gain a sense of self-worth or understanding.

• Example: Comparing your grades to those of your classmates to assess how well you're doing academically.

upward social comparison

refers to comparing oneself to others who are perceived as better or more successful, often leading to feelings of inadequacy or motivation to improve.

• Example: Comparing your athletic abilities to a professional athlete and feeling inspired to work harder.

downward social comparison

refers to comparing oneself to others who are perceived as worse off or less successful, often boosting self-esteem or providing a sense of relief.

• Example: Comparing your grades to someone who did worse on a test and feeling better about your performance.

relative depravation

refers to the feeling of being worse off or deprived when comparing oneself to others who are perceived to have more or are in a better situation.

• Example: Feeling dissatisfied with your salary because you compare it to a colleague who earns more, even though your salary is adequate for your needs.

stereotype

IDEA - “People with pink hair are mean.”

• Ideas towards people that belong to a particular group.

• Attitudes - Cognition

a generalized belief or assumption about the characteristics of a group of people, often oversimplified or inaccurate.

prejudice

FEELING - “I don’t like people with pink hair.”

• Intolerant, unfavorable, and rigid attitude or feeling towards a group of people.

• Attitudes - Affect

a negative attitude or belief about a group of people based on their membership in that group, often without sufficient evidence.

discrimination

ACTION - “I am not going to let anyone with pink hair sit next to me at lunch.”

• Actions that deny opportunities or esteem to an entire group of people or individual members of that group.

• Attitudes - Behavior

the unjust or harmful treatment of people based on their group membership, such as race, gender, or age.

implicit attitudes

These are unconscious beliefs or feelings towards a group, object, or idea that influence behavior without a person being aware of them.

• Example: A hiring manager genuinely believes they are unbiased, but they unconsciously favor male candidates over female candidates for leadership positions.

just-world hypothesis

the cognitive bias that leads people to assume the world is fair, reinforcing the just-world phenomenon

• The assumption that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people.

  • Think: Karma.

out-group homogeneity bias

refers to the tendency to view members of an out-group as all being similar to each other, while perceiving members of your own in-group as more diverse.

• Example: Believing that all members of a rival sports team have the same traits or behaviors, while recognizing the diversity within your own team.

in-group bias

the tendency to favor and prioritize the members of one's own group over those in other groups.

• Example: Supporting your school's sports team more strongly than a rival school's team, even if both teams are equally skilled.

ethnocentrism

The belief that one's own culture, ethnicity, or group is superior to others, often leading to judgment of other cultures based on one's own standards.

• Example: A traveler from the U.S. visits a country where people eat with their hands and assumes it is "uncivilized" rather than recognizing it as a different cultural practice.

belief perseverance

The tendency to cling to one's initial beliefs even after receiving evidence that contradicts them.

• Example: A person continues to believe that vaccines cause autism despite overwhelming scientific evidence disproving this claim.

confirmation bias

The tendency to seek out, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

• Example: A person who strongly believes that a particular diet is the best only reads articles that support their belief and dismisses research showing alternative diets are also effective.

cognitive dissonance

refers to the psychological/mental discomfort that occurs when a person holds two conflicting beliefs or when their behavior contradicts their beliefs.

• Example: A person who smokes cigarettes knows that smoking is harmful to their health. To reduce dissonance, they might justify it by saying, "My grandfather smoked his whole life and lived to be 90."

• Example: Feeling uncomfortable after buying an expensive item you can't afford, because it conflicts with your belief in saving money.

social norms

refer to the accepted behaviors, rules, or expectations within a group or society that guide how individuals should act.

• Example: Shaking hands when meeting someone is a social norm in many cultures.

social influence theory

refers to the ways in which individuals change their behavior, attitudes, or beliefs due to the presence or actions of others. It includes concepts like conformity, compliance, and obedience.

• Example: A person may start recycling after seeing many of their friends do it, influenced by the social norm of environmental responsibility.

normative social influence

the influence to conform in order to be liked or accepted by others, often resulting in public compliance without private agreement.

• Changing behavior to fit in with a group.

• “I want to be liked or accepted.”

• Ex - Asch study.

informational social influence

when people conform to others' behaviors or opinions because they believe those others have accurate information.

• Example: Following a crowd during a fire because you assume they know the safest exit.

• Changing behavior to be correct.

• “I want to be right.”

• Ex - Going to a different country and watching what they do.

persuasion techniques

refer to strategies used to influence others' attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors.

central route persuasion technique

refers to a method of persuasion that relies on logical arguments, facts, and evidence to influence attitudes.

This route is typically used when the audience is motivated to think carefully about the message and has the ability to process it.

• Example: A company provides detailed research and data to persuade customers to buy a product because of its proven effectiveness.

peripheral route persuasion technique

refers to a method of persuasion that relies on superficial cues, such as attractiveness, emotions, or endorsements by celebrities, rather than logical arguments.

This route is typically used when the audience is not motivated to deeply process the message.

• Example: A commercial featuring a popular celebrity endorsing a product to influence viewers to buy it without focusing on the product's actual features.

halo effect persuasion technique

where one positive trait of a person influences overall perception, making them seem more favorable in other areas.

• Example: If someone is physically attractive, you may assume they are also kind and intelligent.

• Once seen as good, we are  often rarely seen negatively.

• Movie stars, athletes, etc.

foot-in-the-door persuasion technique

refers to starting with a small request to which a person is likely to agree, and then following up with a larger request.

The initial agreement increases the likelihood that the person will comply with the larger request.

• Example: Asking someone to volunteer for an hour at an event, and later asking them to commit to a longer volunteer shift.

door-in-the-face persuasion technique

refers to starting with a large, unreasonable request that is likely to be refused, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request.

The person is more likely to agree to the smaller request after rejecting the larger one.

• Example: Asking someone for a $100 donation, then following up with a request for a $20 donation, which seems more reasonable in comparison.

conformity

refers to the tendency to adjust one's behavior, attitudes, or beliefs to match those of a group or social norm, often to fit in or avoid conflict.

• Example: Wearing similar clothing to your friends to blend in with their style, even if it’s not your usual preference.

obedience

refers to the act of following direct commands or instructions from an authority figure, even if it conflicts with personal beliefs or desires.

• Example: A person following a supervisor's order to complete a task, even if they believe the task is unnecessary.

individualism

refers to the cultural or social belief that emphasizes personal independence, self-reliance, and the importance of individual rights and achievements over group goals.

• Example: Valuing personal freedom and pursuing one's own goals, such as starting a business independently, instead of working toward collective community goals.

collectivism

refers to the cultural or social belief that emphasizes the importance of group goals, interdependence, and cooperation over individual needs and desires.

• Example: A person prioritizing their family's well-being or the success of a team over personal achievements.

multiculturalism

refers to the coexistence of diverse cultural groups within a society, where differences are respected and valued, and individuals are encouraged to maintain their unique cultural identities.

• Example: A community that celebrates various cultural festivals and promotes understanding and inclusion among people from different ethnic backgrounds.

group polarization

Group decisions (and/or individual beliefs) become more extreme after meeting with other like-minded individuals.

• Example: After discussing their views, a group of friends who already support a political party may become even more strongly committed to their beliefs.

groupthink

People conform to group decisions to promote harmony and avoid being outcasted.

the tendency for group members to conform to a consensus decision without critically evaluating alternatives, often to maintain harmony within the group.

• Example: A team may go along with a risky business decision because no one wants to disrupt the group's agreement, even if they have concerns.

diffusion of responsibility

refers to the tendency for individuals to feel less accountable for their actions when they are part of a group, leading to less likely action, especially in emergencies.

• Example: In a crowded area, if someone collapses, people might assume someone else will help, so no one steps forward to assist.

social loafing

In group tasks, one exerts less effort than if they were working as an individual.

the tendency for individuals to put in less effort when working in a group than when working alone.

• Example: In a group project, one person may do less work because they rely on others to carry the load.

deindividuation

People lose their sense of self-awareness and restraint when in a group / when anonymity is ensured. often leading to behavior that wouldn't occur alone.

• Example: People may act aggressively during a riot because they feel anonymous within the crowd.

social facilitation

In the presence of others...easy, well-rehearsed tasks performed better; new, complex ones will be performed worse.

• Example: You may run faster in a race when surrounded by other competitors.

false consensus effect

The tendency to overestimate how much others share our opinions, beliefs, or behaviors.

• Example: A person who dislikes pineapple on pizza assumes that most people must also dislike it, even though many actually enjoy it.

superordinate goals

refer to shared goals that require the cooperation of two or more groups, which can reduce conflict and promote unity between them.

• Example: Different teams working together to complete a large community service project, like building a playground, which helps them set aside their differences for a common purpose.

social trap

A situation in which conflicting parties, by each pursuing their own interests, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

• Example: Overfishing in a lake because each fisherman wants to catch as many fish as possible, eventually depleting the fish population for everyone.

a situation where individuals or groups pursue their own self-interest, leading to negative outcomes for the group as a whole.

i/o psychology (industrial/organizational)

refers to the study of human behavior in organizations and the workplace. It focuses on topics such as employee motivation, performance, job satisfaction, leadership, and how to improve workplace environments.

• Example: An I/O psychologist might help a company design better hiring processes or improve employee morale through better management practices.

altruism

refers to selfless behavior that benefits others, often at a personal cost, without expecting any reward or recognition in return.

• Example: Donating money to charity or helping someone in need, even when there is no personal gain or recognition involved.

social reciprocity norm

refers to the expectation that people will help those who have helped them, or offer favors in return for kindness or assistance received.

• Example: If someone helps you move into a new apartment, you may feel a sense of obligation to help them with something in the future, such as returning the favor by assisting with a project.

social responsibility norm

refers to the expectation that people will help others who are in need or suffering, especially when they are unable to repay the help.

• Example: Helping a person who is stranded on the side of the road, even if you don’t know them and they can’t offer anything in return.

bystander effect

refers to the phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present, due to a diffusion of responsibility.

• Example: A person is more likely to help someone in need when alone, but less likely to intervene in a crowd, assuming someone else will help.

frontal lobe

refers to the region of the brain located at the front, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as reasoning, planning, problem-solving, decision-making, and controlling voluntary movements. It also plays a role in personality expression and emotional regulation.

• Example: When you plan your schedule for the day or make decisions about your future, your frontal lobe is actively involved.

intrinsic motivation

refers to the desire to engage in an activity for its own sake, due to enjoyment, personal satisfaction, or interest, rather than for external rewards or pressures.

• Example: A person who plays the piano simply because they love making music, not for any external reward or recognition.

extrinsic motivation

refers to the drive to perform an activity to receive external rewards or to avoid negative consequences, rather than for the inherent enjoyment of the task.

• Example: Studying for a test to get a good grade or working at a job to earn money.

self-actualizing tendency

refers to the natural drive in humans to grow, develop, and realize their fullest potential, seeking personal fulfillment and peak experiences.

• Example: A person who constantly strives to improve their skills and pursue their passions, such as an artist working to perfect their craft or an individual pursuing meaningful goals in life.

social psychology

The scientific study of how we think about, influence & relate to one another.

• How does our thinking and behavior change when people are around us?
  

• How do factors such as identity (your race, gender, etc) and quantity of people around us impact our thinking and behavior?

attribution theory

• When we explain someone’s behavior we credit it to either their…

  • Disposition - Character/personality.

  • Situational - External factors.

just-world phenomenon

the tendency to believe that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get. The tendency to believe that the world is fair. Think: Karma.

• This belief can lead to victim-blaming.

• Example: Someone hears about a person losing their home due to financial struggles and assumes it must be because they were irresponsible with money, rather than considering external factors like medical debt or job loss.

attitudes

Learned evaluations of a person or object that influence thought and action. 

• Simply put, it’s the basic expressions of approval / disapproval, like / dislike

ingroup

a group you identify with and feel a sense of belonging to.

outgroup

a group you don't identify with and may perceive as different or separate.

frustration-aggression principle

states that frustration, which occurs when a person is blocked from achieving a goal, can lead to aggression.

• Example: If someone is stuck in traffic and can't get to work on time, they may become angry and lash out.

• When our goals are blocked, we get frustrated.

• Concept combines catharsis with displacement.

pluralistic influence

refers to the tendency for people to rely on others in a group to determine how to behave in uncertain situations, often leading to inaction when no one else is responding.

• Example: In a crowd, if no one is helping someone in distress, individuals may assume there's no need for action because others aren't reacting either.

preconscious mind

the mental state where information is not currently in conscious awareness but can be easily brought into consciousness at any time; essentially, thoughts and memories that are not actively being thought about but can be readily recalled when needed

unconscious mind

the part of the psyche that stores thoughts, feelings, memories, and motivations outside of conscious awareness, significantly influencing behavior even when a person is not actively thinking about them

• this concept is primarily associated with Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory, where the unconscious mind is seen as a reservoir of repressed desires and experiences that can still impact actions

denial defense mechanism

Rejecting (refusing to acknowledge) an intolerable reality.

• Example: A person who smokes heavily refuses to accept the health risks.

displacement defense mechanism

Shift negative impulses toward unrelated, less threatening object or person.

• Example: After receiving a bad grade on a test, a student goes home and yells at their younger sibling instead of expressing frustration to their teacher.

rationalization defense mechanism

Justifying behaviors or failures with logical but false explanations (i.e making excuses).

• Example: A student who fails a test blames the teacher’s “unfair” grading rather than admitting they didn’t study enough.

projection defense mechanism

Seeing one’s own traits, attitudes and faults in others but not themselves.

• Example: A student who struggles with procrastination accuses their friend of being lazy and irresponsible.

reaction formation defense mechanism

Behaving in a way that is opposite to one’s true feelings.

• Example: A student who has a crush on someone acts rudely toward them to hide their true feelings.

regression defense mechanism

Retreating to an earlier developmental level involving less mature responses.

• Example: A teenager who is overwhelmed with stress about college applications starts cuddling with their childhood stuffed animal for comfort.

repression defense mechanism

Forgetting situations that cause painful emotions.

• Example: Holocaust survivors sometimes forget the events that happened to them while in the camps.

sublimation defense mechanism

Rechannel unacceptable impulses towards socially acceptable activities

• Example: Instead of acting aggressively when angry, a student channels their frustration into intense workouts at the gym.

projective test

a type of personality test where individuals are presented with ambiguous stimuli, like inkblots or pictures, and asked to interpret them, with the idea that their responses will reveal hidden emotions, thoughts, and internal conflicts by "projecting" them onto the stimulus

• essentially, their interpretations of the ambiguous images are thought to reveal aspects of their unconscious mind.

ambiguous stimuli

the key feature is that the stimuli presented are deliberately vague or open to interpretation, allowing for a wide range of possible responses.

free association

a psychoanalytic technique where a patient is encouraged to openly share whatever thoughts, feelings, or images come to mind without censorship, allowing access to unconscious material by verbalizing whatever appears, no matter how seemingly irrelevant or illogical it may be

• this method is primarily used to explore the unconscious mind in therapy

• Developed by Sigmund Freud as a core component of psychoanalysis.

• Purpose: To uncover hidden thoughts and emotions that might be causing psychological distress by allowing them to surface freely.

dream interpretation

the process of assigning meaning to dreams, often used to understand a person's unconscious thoughts, feelings, and conflicts by analyzing the symbolism and themes present within their dream content

• most notably associated with Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory where dreams are seen as a window into the unconscious mind

• frequently used in psychoanalytic therapy to gain insights into a person's psyche and address underlying issues.

reciprocal determinism

a theory proposed by psychologist Albert Bandura, stating that a person's behavior is influenced by and simultaneously influences both their internal personal factors (thoughts, beliefs) and their external environment, creating a continuous interaction between the three elements; essentially, behavior, environment, and personal factors all shape each other in a cyclical manner.

• unlike traditional behavioral theories, reciprocal determinism doesn't see behavior as solely determined by the environment, but rather as a dynamic interaction between internal and external factors.

• Example: A student who believes they are bad at math (personal factor) might avoid challenging math problems (behavior), which can then lead to a classroom environment where they feel less supported in their learning (environment).

self-concept

an individual's overall perception of themselves, encompassing their beliefs, attitudes, and feelings about their own attributes, essentially answering the question "Who am I?" - including their strengths, weaknesses, likes, dislikes, and overall identity

• it's a cognitive understanding of oneself, distinct from self-esteem which is the evaluative component of one's self-worth

• Influences behavior — A positive self-concept can lead to confidence and positive actions, while a negative self-concept can lead to self-doubt and insecurity

self-efficacy

an individual's belief in their ability to successfully complete a task or achieve a specific goal

• essentially their confidence in their own capacity to execute behaviors needed to produce desired outcomes

• it is a key concept within Albert Bandura's social cognitive theory.

self-esteem

a person's overall evaluation of their own worth, essentially how they feel about themselves, encompassing their beliefs about their abilities, value, and positive or negative self-image

• it is considered a key component of one's self-concept, often compared to self-efficacy even though different.

internal locus of control

the belief that a person has control over their own life and the outcomes of their actions, meaning they attribute success or failure primarily to their own efforts and abilities, rather than external factors like luck or other people

• People with an internal locus of control believe that their choices and efforts directly influence the results they experience

external locus of control

the belief that events in one's life are primarily determined by external forces beyond their personal control, such as luck, fate, or other people, rather than by their own actions or abilities; essentially, attributing outcomes to outside influences instead of taking personal responsibility

• People with an external locus of control believe they have little to no control over their life circumstances.

locus of control

the degree to which a person believes they have control over the events in their life, essentially whether they attribute the causes of their experiences to internal factors (like their own actions) or external factors (like luck or other people)

• Concept originator: Julian B. Rotter

unconditional (positive) regard

self-actualizing tendency

big 5 theory

agreeableness (big 5 theory)

openness (big 5 theory)

extraversion (big 5 theory)

conscientiousness (big 5 theory)

emotional stability/neuroticism (big 5 theory)

factor analysis

Questions: do you like staying organized?; do you tend to avoid spending money impulsively?; do you complete your homework in a careful manner?

All of these questions can cluster together to form a factor that evaluates, in this case, conscientiousness.

personality inventories that use factor analysis