IR - Interwar Years

Wilson's 14 Points

Woodrow Wilson's plan for post-war peace:

• No secret treaties

• Freedom of the seas

• Removal of economic barriers - Reduction of arms

• Adjust colonial claims

Treaty of Versailles (1919)

The treaty imposed on Germany by the Allied powers in 1919 after the end of World War I which demanded exorbitant reparations from the Germans

Internationalism

A national policy of actively trading with foreign countries to foster peace and prosperity

Nationalism

A strong feeling of pride in and devotion to one's country

What did Wilson (USA) want?

Self-determination, set up LofN, help Germany recover- not too harsh a punishment

What did Lloyd George (Britain) want?

Help Germany recover in order to trade with GB and pay reparations reduce army and navy- Threat to GB

What did Clemenceau (France) want?

punish Germany harshly, reparations make France secure from invasion

Around 60% of France’s young men had been killed/injured

Lost around 250,000 buildings

8000 sq miles of farm land had been devastated

What did Germany want?

more respect from other countries

Paris Peace Conference

1919, meeting of the Allies at the end of WWI, concluded with Treaty of Versailles

What did the Treaty of Versailles do?

• Germany had to accept war guilt

• Germany forced to pay £6.6 bn in reparations (later changed)

• Germany lost 10% of their land and 12.5% of their population - also lost overseas empire - forbade Anschluss (form a union with Austria)

• Germany had to reduce army to 100,000 men, navy could only have 6 battleships

• Demilitarised Rhineland

• Germany was not allowed to join LofN

Treaty of St. Germain 1919 (Austria)

• Austria’s army limited to 30,000 men, forbidden to united with Germany (no Anschluss)

• Austro-Hungarian Empire broken up, creating new states

Treaty of Neuilly 1919 (Bulgaria)

• Bulgaria lost land to Greece, Romania and Yugoslavia

• Bulgaria’s army limited to 20,000 and had to pay £10m in reparations

Treaty of Trianon 1920 (Hungary)

• Hungary lost territory to Romania, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia

• It was supposed to pay reparations but economy was too weak, so never did

Treaty of Sèvres 1920 (Turkey)

• Turkey lost lands to Italy and Greece

• Its armed forces were severely limited

• Turkey lost much of it’s empire, mostly to France and Britain (who gained oil-rich Iraq)

• Turkey was dismayed and used force to reverse some of the terms. These changed were set out in the Treaty of Lausanne (1923)

Rapallo Treaty (1922)

The USSR and Germany re-established diplomatic relations

Dawes Plan (1924)

• To avert and economic crisis in Germany, the USA lent it the money it needed to honour it’s reparations (800m marks).

• These loans propped up the German economy and restored prosperity to the country in the mid-1920s

Locarno Treaties (1925)

• Germany accepted its western borders as set out in the TofV.

• This decision was greeted with great enthusiasm, especially in France, and it paved the way for Germany to join the LofN.

• However, nothing was said about Germany’s eastern borders with Poland and Czechoslovakia.

• These states remained nervous about Germany.

Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

An agreement between 65 nations to not use force to settle disputes

Young Plan (1929)

Reduced the total amount of German reparations. Also set up the bank for international settlements

Reaction to Treaty of Versailles (Germany)

• Germans did not believe that Germany lost the war, so did not want to be treated like a defeated nation

• Angry they had not been represented at peace talks

• Felt accepting war guilt was unfair because they thought that blame should be shared

• Disarmament clauses felt unfair because other countries did not have to reduce their armed forces

• Appalled that they lost land/population, claimed that it was inconsistent with Wilson’s demand for self-determination

• Huge reparations bill caused outrage. Blamed later economic problems in 1920s on this

• Humiliated when not invited to LofN - seemed hypocritical

Reaction to the Treaty of Versailles (USA)

isolationist

Reaction to the Treaty of Versailles (Britain)

Too harsh, may cause future conflict

Reaction to the Treaty of Versailles (France)

not harsh enough

League of Nations

an international organization formed in 1920 to promote cooperation and peace among nations

Why was the League of Nations created?

To prevent another World War and maintain peace, disarmament

Organisation of the League of Nations

• An assembly, which met once a year.

• A council, which met more regularly to consider crises.

• A small secretariat to handle the paperwork.

• A Court of International Justice.

• A number of committees such as the International Labour Organisation and the Health Committee to carry out its humanitarian work.

Strengths of the League of Nations

• It was set up by the Treaty of Versailles, which every nation had signed.

• It had 58 nations as members by the 1930s.

• To enforce its will, it could offer arbitration through the Court of International Justice, or apply trade sanctions against countries that went to war.

• Unanimous decisions

• Helping refugees

• Court of International Justice

• Collective security

Weaknesses of the League of Nations

• It was set up by the Treaty of Versailles (which every nation hated).

• Only met 5 times per year

• Only 4 permanent numbers (could abuse their vetoes)

• Economic sanctions

• Britain and France trying to take charge

• Its aims were too ambitious.

• Germany, Russia and the USA were not members.

• It had no army.

• Its organisation was cumbersome.

• Decisions had to be unanimous.

Examples of LofN successes

• 1921 Upper Silesia, dispute between Germany and Poland, LofN oversaw a peaceful plebiscite and divided the region between Germany and Poland. Both countries accepted the decision

• 1921 Aaland Islands, Finland and Sweden both claimed the Aaland Islands, threatened to go to war, but Sweden accepted LofN ruling that Finland gets the islands.

• 1925 Bulgaria, Greek soldiers killed on Border with Bulgaria, Greek troops invaded, and Bulgaria appealed to LofN. LofN demanded both sides stand down and Greek forces withdraw from Bulgaria. Greece obeyed.

Examples of LofN failures

• 1923 Corfu, Italian general murdered, Mussolini demanded Greece to compensate Italy and execute murderers. Greece refused to meet all demands, Mussolini attacked and occupied Corfu, 15 were killed. Attack violated the covenant so Greece appealed to LofN for help. LofN condemned Mussolini’s actions but suggested that Greece pay Italy compensation. Mussolini refused to let the matter rest, claimed that LofN weren’t competent to deal with the issue and asked for the Conference of Ambassadors to deal with it. Britain and France could not agree. In the end Mussolini got his way, CofA ruled that Greece must apologise and compensate Italy. There was much anger in the League over the CofA’s actions.

• 1920-29 Vilna, Poland took control of Vilna. Lithuania appealed to LofN, who protested Poland, but Poland did not pull out. France and Britain were not prepared to act because Poland was a potential French ally against Germany.

Hoare-Laval Pact

British French agreement in 1935 to appease Mussolini and to prevent Italian-German alliance by accepting Italian annexation of land in Abyssinia

Armistice

A temporary peace agreement to end fighting.

The Big Three

Woodrow Wilson, David Lloyd George, Georges Clemenceau

Collective security

A system in which a group of nations acts as one to preserve the peace of all

Sanctions

something that forces obedience with a law or rule

Self-determination

Concept that ethnicities have the right to govern themselves

Totalitarianism

A form of government in which the ruler is an absolute dictator (not restricted by a constitution or laws or opposition etc.)

Consequences of the Great Depression

• Reduced the inclination of League members to impose economic sanctions. World markets shrinking = countries wanting to maintain existing trade contracts

• Brought extremists to power in Germany, who wanted to destroy Versailles settlement. Before WSC Nazis polled less that 3% of the vote, as recession deepened Nazis picked up support. Nazis won 107 seats in September 1930.

• US policy became even more isolationist

• US banks started to run out of money, calling in loans they had given to states in Central Europe (Poland, Czechoslovakia)

• GNI of USA decreased by 50% between 1929 and 1932. Wheat exports fell from $200m to $5m in 1932, devastating farmers.

• Japanese Silk trade collapsed. The Great Depression encouraged militarism in Japan. Japanese army took note of how Japan’s survival depended on its overseas trade, so in 1931, invaded the Chinese region of Manchuria

• Put pressure on countries to find new markets and sources of raw materials. This could only be done through colonisation/annexation of new territories - likely to involve war.

How did the Great Depression allow dictatorships to emerge?

• Germany → after WW1 Germany suffered with economic and political crises. When the US called their loans back in 1929, the economy collapsed in Germany. Germanys suffered unemployment and felt that the government let them down. This caused people to turn to parties of political extremism (Nazis).

• Italy → Italy had been under the control of Mussolini, who led the Fascist party. He used the depression to tighten his grip on Italy’s bank and industries. His vision for Italy was a potential threat to international peace.

• USSR → The USSR tried to spread communist ideas through COMINTERN. Communism brought state control to Russian industries and the economy. Stalin emerged as the new leader of the USSR, and was convinced that the non-communist states such as Germany and Italy were going to try and crush the USSR. His suspicion of them made him feel even more threatened

How did the Great Depression impact international relations?

• Germany → Nazis believed in aggressive political nationalism, meaning Germany, and German people were the priority. Hitler offered radical solutions, such as a massive rearmament program, extensive state control of industry and projects, and finally getting rid of the TofV and ending the reparations payments.

• Italy → Mussolini believed established powers like Britain and France were in decline, and that Italy had more in common with Hitler’s new regime, so he started to discuss and alliance. He also hoped to rebuild a more modern Roman Empire, by colonising territories in Africa.

• USSR → Stalin built up the USSR’s industries to be prepared for future war. He also felt that democracies like US and Britain were suspicious of the USSR, and that they feared that the USSR was going to try and spread communism across the world.

How did the Great Depression hit Japan? + Aftermath

• Tariffs imposed by the USA and China meant Japan was unable to sell silk and textiles - essential for the economy

• People began to blame the elected government for economic problems and support hardline nationalist politicians

• These politicians were in league with military leaders who believed the only way to solve economic problems was to build a Japanese Empire by choice

• Japan effectively became a military dictatorship

Failure of the LofN in Manchuria

• Sept 1931 - Japanese army, who controlled the South Manchurian Railway, claimed that it had been sabotaged by Chinese soldiers. In retaliation, Japanese began to occupy towns and cites in the area. China appeals to the LofN

• Oct 1931 - LofN passed a resolution (without the representatives of Japan and China), saying that Japan should withdraw and established a commission to investigate. Japan rejected LofN’s resolution and insisted on direct negotiations with the Chinese govt. These failed and Japan took over the rest of Manchuria. Chiang Kai-Shek (Leader of Nationalist Chinese forces), was more interested in trying to defeat rival communist forces so the Japanese were easily able to take over the area.

• Late 1931 - USA said they would not recognise any government arising as a result of Japan’s actions in Manchuria as Japan’s action directly contravened the Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

• Jan 1932 - Japanese bombers attacked Shanghai - Chinese forces fought back - but unable to defeat them. Meanwhile LofN’s investigators arrived

• Feb 1932 - After continuous fighting, Japanese set up a puppet government in Manchuria, with Pu Yi as puppet emperor.

• Sept 1932 - Report on Manchuria was produced. Criticised both Japan and China, but decided that Japan had acted unlawfully, and that Manchuria should be returned to the Chinese

• Feb 1933 - A Special Assembly of the LofN held a vote on the issue and approved the report by 42 votes to 1 (Japan)

• Mar 1933 - Japan left the LofN and a week later invaded Jehol (another city in China)

Consequences of LofN failure (Manchuria)

• LofN had been proved powerless if a strong nation decided to pursue an aggressive policy

• Both Hitler and Mussolini looked on with interest - they would soon follow Japan’s example

The Disarmament Conference (1932)

• US President Herbert Hoover encouraged states in Europe to come up with disarmament plans. In exchange, the USA offered to reduce/cancel their debts.

• It came up with proposals to ban bombing of civilian populations and restrictions of certain weapons

• However, various nations could not agree on how to enforce these restrictions

Failure of Disarmament

• Soon after Hitler took power, he started to rearm Germany in secret, but promised the Conference he was not.

• Self-interest undermined the League’s aims. Britain and France were still split on the issue. British people felt TofV was unfair and thought Germany should be allowed to rearm, but this made the French feel less secure.

• Germany resented the fact that it had been forced to disarm while no other country had done so.

• In Oct 1933, Hitler withdrew from the Conference and then from the League.

Why did Mussolini want to invade Abyssinia?

• Bring back the prestige of Italy

• Thought Britain’s power was declining, so weren’t a threat

• Expansion into Africa

• Raw materials in Africa

• Climate was good for farming

What did the Abyssinian crisis reveal about International Relations?

• Italy would turn to Germany (alliance between Hitler and Mussolini)

• Self-interest within the LofN

• Issues with unanimous decision-making

• Mussolini did not respect the LofN

Britain and France’s response to Abyssinian Crisis

• Economically, Britain and France could not afford to waste their resources as they were still rebuilding.

• Britain and France were seen to be representing the LofN, but were really trying to protect their own interests.

• They wanted to stay on good terms with Mussolini because they believed he was a possible ally against Hitler

• However, there was a strong support in Britain for action (possibly even military action) against Italy

• Both Britain and France were afraid that closing the Suez Canal (that they owned) - which was Italy’s main supply route to Abyssinia - would result in war with Italy

Stresa Pact (Britain, France and Italy)

• formal statement against German rearmament

• commitment to stand against Germany

• Abyssinia was not discussed at this meeting - Mussolini interpreted this as a promise that Britain and France would ignore his actions in Abyssinia

Hilter’s beliefs

• Destroying communism → Hitler believed that communism was a disease that had to be wiped out. He persecuted communists in Germany. Since the USSR was a communist state, it seemed likely that the two countries would clash at some point

• Racial theory and Lebensraum → Hitler claimed that Germans were Aryans - a master race. He believed that Jews and Slavs were inferior. It was Germany’s destiny to create an empire that would rule over these people and give Germans the Lebensraum they needed

• Militarism → Hitler regarded war as a measure of the health and strength of a nation. There is no doubt that within the short time of the Nazis coming to power, Hitler was preparing Germany for conflict.

Hitler’s actions

• Leaving the LofN in 1933, claiming that his country was not being treated equally. This undermined the LofN’s authority

• Rearmament 1933-35, This was specifically banned by the TofV. He drafted thousands of unemployed workers into the army to reduce unemployment. He also began to stockpile weapons, in secret at first. In 1933 he walked out of the LofN Disarmament Conference. By 1935, he was no longer bothered to hide Germany’s rearmament programme. He publicly paraded his forces in a ‘Freedom to Rearm’ rally in Berlin, again boosting his prestige and support in Germany.

• The Saar 1935, In 1919, the was run by the LofN. Hitler claimed it should be part of Germany. The League forced Hitler to agree to a plebiscite. Nearly 90% of people in the region voted to join Hitler’s Germany, boosting his prestige in his country

• Remilitarisation of the Rhineland 1936, TofV banned german forces from entering the Rhineland. In 1925, Germany had accepted this restriction in the Locarno treaties. In February 1936, France and the USSR agreed a mutual assistance Treaty to protect each other in the event of an attack from Germany. Hitler claimed he was being encircled, and had a right to protect his borders, so in March 1936 he ordered troops into the Rhineland. This was a huge gamble because if the British and French had sent troops he would have been forced to withdraw, but they were too concerned with the Abyssinian crisis. LofN condemned Hitler’s actions but no further action was taken.