AP LANG CHAPTERS 1-3 VOCAB FOR TEST

Ad hominem

latin for “against the man”, specific fallacy diversion tactic that switches the argument from the issue to the other speaker’s character (irrelevantly, as in it is not relevent to argument)

ad populum (Bandwagon)

This fallacy occurs when evidence boils down to “Everybody's doing it, so it must be a good thing to do” (it also a lot isn't even the best or a good thing)

appeal to false authority

this fallacy occurs when someone who has no expertise to speak on an issue cited as an authority. EX: famous movie stars do not know medicine, yet they are used in lots of medicine ads.

argument

a process of reasoned inquiry; a persuasive discourse resulting in a coherent and considered movement from a claim to a conclusion

Begging the question

a fallacy in which a claim is based on evidence or support that is in doubt. it begs a question whether the support itself is sound.

backing

In the toulmin model, backing consists of  further assurances or data without which the assumption lacks authority.

Circular reasoning

a fallacy in which the speaker repeats the claim as a way to provide evidence (you cant give me a C, I'm an A student)

claim

AKA assertion/ proposition, a claim states the argument's main idea or position. a claim differs from a topic or subject in that a claim must be arguable. 

claim of fact

a claim that asserts that something is true or not true.

Claim of policy

a claim that proposes a change (in policy; laws)

Claim of value

a claim that argues that something is good or bad, or right or wrong (morally)

Classical oration

6 part argument structure used by classical rhetoricians.

CLASSICAL) Introduction

(exordium) introduces the reader to the subject under discourse.

CLASSICAL) partition

The main argument/claim of the essay. separate your essay from others (thesis)

CLASSICAL) Narration

(narratio) provides factual information and background material on the subject at hand OR establishes why the subject is an issue and needs addressing. 

CLASSICAL) confirmation

(confirmatio) Usually the major part of the text, the confirmation includes proof needed to make the writer's case.

CLASSICAL) Refutation

(refutatio) addresses the counterargument, is a bridge between the writer's proof and conclusion.

CLASSICAL) conclusion

(peroratio) brings the essay to a satisfying close

closed thesis

a closed thesis is a statement of the main idea of the argument  that also previews the major points the writer needs to make.

EX: The death penalty should be abolished because it is cruel, ineffective, and costly

deduction

deduction is a logical process whereby one reaches a conclusion by starting with a general principle or truth and applying it to a specific case

EX: major; exercise contributes to better health minor: yoga is a type of exercise  conclusion:  yoga contributes to better health

either or (false dilemma)

a fallacy in which the speaker presents two extreme options as the only choices 

Either we agree to higher taxes, or our grandchildren will be punished with debt.

faulty analogy

a fallacy that occurs when an analogy compares two things that are not comparable. for instance, to argue that because we put animals that are in irreversible pain out of their misery, we should do the same for people. It asks reader to ignore the differences between animals and people.

first hand evidence

evidence based on something the writer knows, from personal experience, observations, or general knowledge of events,

hasty generalization

a fallacy in which a faulty conclusion is reached because of inadequate evidence.ex: Smoking isn't bad for you, my aunt smoked a pack a day and she lived until 90.

induction

(inducere) "to lead to” a logical process whereby the writer  reasons from  particulars to universals, using specific cases to draw a conclusion, which is also called generalization.

EX:  Regular exercise promotes weight loss

exercise lowers stress levels

exercise improves mood and outlook

exercise contributes to better  health. 

Logical Fallacy

logical fallacies are potential vulnerabilities or weaknesses in arguments. they often arise from failure to make a logical connection between the claim and the evidence used to support it.

open thesis

A thesis that does not list all the points the writer intends to cover in the essay.

Running is a fantastic activity that helps contribute to one's health as a whole.

post hoc ergo propter hoc

latin for "after which therefore before because of which” meaning that it is incorrect to always claim  that something is just a cause because it happened earlier. Correlation does not equal causation.

qualifier

(toulmin model) uses words like usually, probably, maybe, in most cases, and most likely, to temper the claim, making it less absolute.

quantative evidence

Quantitative evidence includes things that can be measured, cited, counted, or otherwise represented in numbers

EX: statistics, surveys, polls, census information

rebuttal

Toulmin) gives voice to possible objections.

reservation

Toulmin) explains the terms and conditions necessitated by the qualifier.

rogerian arguments

Developed by Carl Rogers) based on the assumption that having a full understanding of an opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively and refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than alienating .

Second hand evidence

Evidence that is accessed through research, reading, and investigation. Factual and historical info, expert opinion, and quantative data.

Straw man

a fallacy that occurs when a speaker deliberately chooses a poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an idea

Syllogism

A logical structure that uses the major premise and the minor premise to reach a necessary conclusion.

Toulmin model

an approach to analyzing and constructing arguments created by Stephen Toulmin.

Because (evidence as support), therefore (claim), Since (warrant or assumption), on account of (backing), unless (reservation)

Warrant

Toulmin) Expresses the assumption necessarily shared by the speaker and the audience.

Audience

The listener, viewer, or reader of a text. Most texts are likely to have multiple audiences.

Concession

An acknowledgement that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable.

Connotation

Meanings or associations that readers have with word beyond the dictionary definition, or denotation.

Context

The circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and events surrounding a text.

Counterargument

An opposing argument to the one a writer is putting forward.

Ethos

Greek for “character”; when someone tries to convince others by showing that they are trustworthy, knowledgeable or have good character

Logos

Greek for “embodied thought.” when someone tries to convince others by using facts, evidence, or clear reasoning (logic/reasoning)

Occasion

The time and place a speech is given or a piece is written

Pathos

When someone tries to convince others by making them feel something like sympathy, anger or excitement (feelings/emotions)

Persona

Greek for “mask”. The face or character that a speaker shows to his or her audience

Polemic

Greek for “hostile”. an aggressive argument that tries to establish the superiority of one opinion over all others

Propaganda

the spread of ideas and information to further a cause

Purpose

The goal the speaker wants to achieve

Refutation

a denial of the validity of an opposing argument

Rhetoric (Aristotle’s version)

the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion

Rhetoric (simple version)

the art of finding ways to persuade an audience

Rhetoric appeals

used to persuade an audience by emphasizing what they most important or compelling.

the 3 major appeals is ethos (character), logos (reason), and pathos (emotion)

rhetorical triangle

a diagram that illustrates the interrelationship among the speaker, audience, and subject in determining a text

SOAPS

A mnemonic device that stands for Subject, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, and Speaker.

Speaker

the person or group who creates a text

Subject

the topic of a text (what the text is about

Text

anything that can be “read” and studied for meaning, not just writing. This includes books, poems , art, photos, performances, fashion, and cultural trends.

Alliteration

Repetition of the same sound beginning several words or syllables in a sentence

allusion

Brief reference to a person event or place (real of fictitious) or to a work of art

Anaphora

Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses or lines

antimetabole

Repetition of words in reverse order

Antithesis

Opposition or contrast of ideas or words in parallel construction

Archaic diction

Old-fashioned or outdated Choice of words

Asyndeton

Omission of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words

Cumulative sentence

Sentence That completes the main idea at the beginning of the sentence and then builds and adds on

Horative sentence

Sentence that exhorts, urges, entreats, implores, or calls to action

Imperative sentence

Sentence used to Command or enjoin

Inversion

Inverted order of words in a sentence (Variation of the subject – verb – object order)

Juxtaposition

Placement of two things closely together to emphasize similarities or differences

Metaphor

Figure of speech that compares two things without using like or as

Oxymoron

Paradoxical juxtaposition of words that seem to contradict one another

Parallelism

Similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses

Periodic sentence

Sentence whose main clause is withheld until the end

Personification

Attribution of a life, life quality to an inanimate object or an idea

Rhetorical question

Figure of speech in the form of a question posed for the rhetorical effect rather than the purpose of getting an answer

Synecdoche

Figure of speech that uses a part to represent the whole

zeguma

Use of two different words in a grammatically similar way that Produces different often incongruous Meanings