Laurich Biology - Unit 2

Carbon

C, all organic compounds are based on this element

Hydrogen

H, included in all organic compounds

Oxygen

O, an element, one of the 6 molecules of life

Sulfur

S, an element, one of the 6 molecules of life

Phosphorous

P, an element, one of the 6 molecules of life

Nitrogen

N, an element, one of the 6 molecules of life

Element

consists of only one type of atom, ex: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

Molecule

A group of atoms bonded together

Functional Group

other elements like H,O,S, and P may attach to the carbon backbone to form reactive clusters of atoms called blank blank, these possess certain chemical properties that they impart to the molecules to which they are attached, most of the reactions that occur in living organisms involve this, mostly ionic or strongly polar

Organic

Contains carbon

Carbon-Based

organic

Hydroxyl Group

a functional group with (-OH), it is polar and can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules and help to dissolve organic compounds such as sugars, ex: methanol, ethanol

Carbonyl Group

a functional group with (-CHO) or (-CO), a blank blank group which is at the end of the carbon skeleton is called an aldehyde, a carbonyl group which is within the carbon skeleton is called a ketone, ex(-CHO): methanal and ethanal, ex(-CO): propanone (acetone)

Carboxyl Group

a functional group with (-COOH), acts as acids (can donate H+), ex: ethanoic acid (acetic acid_

Amino Group

a functional group with (-NH2), acts as bases (can take up H+), ex: propanamine, butanamine

Phosphate Group

(PO4), makes up the backbone of a nucleotide with the pentose sugar

Lipid

a macromolecule, contains C,H,O, groups of organic molecules that are insoluble in water, best for storing energy, large/nonpolar, most are composed of a glycerol molecule with attached fatty acids, ex: fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, steroids, glycolipids, some vitamins, 2:1 H:O

Carbohydrate

Organic compounds, found in ratios of about 1:2:1 C:H:O, source of energy and structural materials, come in the form of monosaccharides (sugars), disaccharides (sugars), and polysaccharides

Nucleic Acid

store and transfer info in the cell, made of C,H,O,N,P, involves DNA, RNA, and nucleotide (monomer)

Protein

polymer constructed from amino acid monomers, has a 3D structure, includes C,H,O,N, acts as biological catalysts (enzymes), a blank's structure depends on four levels of structure

Saturated Fats

these fatty acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms (have maximum number of hydrogen atoms), straight structure, unhealthy-fats usually from animal sources, solid at room temperature (20 Celsius)

Monounsaturated Fats

their fatty acids have some carbon atoms that are double bonded (not fully hydrogenated), kinked (tilted) in shape, healthy, from plant sources, liquid at room temperature, single carbon bond (double bond)

Polyunsaturated Fats

their fatty acids have some carbon atoms that are double bonded (not fully hydrogenated), kinked (tilted) in shape, healthy, from plant sources, liquid at room temperature, have more than one carbon bond (double bonds)

Phospholipids

cell membranes made up of two layers of blank form a barrier, keep things that are supposed to be out, out of the cell, keep things that are supposed to stay in, in

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid, encodes and stores info used to assemble proteins, double nucleotide chains, nitrogen bases bond in pairs across chains, spiraled in a double helix, stays in a compacted structure called a chromosome, pentose sugar is deoxyribose, uses T nitrogen base (thymine)

RNA

ribonucleic acid, reads DNA info to direct protein synthesis, single nucleotide chain, pentose sugar is ribose, uses information, uses U nitrogen base (uracil)

Nucleotide

monomer, DNA and RNA are polymers made from it, include a pentose sugar, phosphate group (previous two make up the backbone), and nitrogen base (comes off the backbone), there are two types of blanks, purines and pyrimidines

Nitrogen Base

(C-N ring), includes adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil, part of the nucleotide that contains the actual information, phosphate group and pentose sugar make the backbone

Pentose Sugar

(SC, S sided), ribose acid found in RNA, deoxyribose acid found in DNA, makes up the nucleotide backbone with phosphate group

Double Helix

characteristic of DNA molecule, H bonds between bases join two strands, double nucleotide chian

Adenine

part of the nitrogen base, connects with thymine in DNA and uracil in RNA, (A)

Thymine

part of the nitrogen base in DNA, connects with adenine, (T)

Guanine

part of the nitrogen base, connects with cytosine, (G)

Cytosine

part of the nitrogen base, connects with guanine, (C)

Uracil

part of the nitrogen base in RNA, connects with adenine, (U)

ATP

adenosine triphosphate, modified nucleotide, adenine (AMP) + P + P, provides energy to drive and support many processes in living cells, ready to use energy molecule

Amino Acids

protein monomer, 20 different ones, all have an amino group and a carboxyl group, protein diversity is based on differing arrangements of a common set of just 20 of these, covalently bonded to a central carbon atom, joined together by peptide bonds, a chain of these is a polypeptide

Peptide Bonds

cells join amino acids together in a dehydration reaction that links the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino groups of the next amino acid, as a result a water molecule is removed

Polypeptide

additional amino acids can be added together by peptide bonds to form a chain of amino acids, a blank

Central Carbon

the carbon atom of an amino acid that the other amino acid groups (carboxyl group, amino group, etc.) all connect to

R Group

a functional group that defines a particular amino acid and gives it special properties

Primary Structure

(1), order of amino acids in a chain, amino acid sequence determined by gene (DNA), slight change in amino acid sequence can affect protein's structure and its functions, ex: sickle cell anemia

Secondary Strucutre

(2), "local folding," folding along short sections of polypeptide, interactions between adjacent amino acids, H bonds between R groups, ex: a-helix (alpha helix), b-pleated sheet (beta sheet)

Tertiary Structure

(3), "whole molecule folding," determined by interactions between R groups, hydrophobic interactions

Quaternary Structure

(4), more than one polypeptide chain joined together, only then is it a functional protein, hydrophobic interactions, ex: collagen (skin and tendons)

Disulfide Bridge

The covalent bond between two sulfur atoms (-S—S-) linking two molecules or remote parts of the same molecule

Protein Structure

primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

Monomer

A simple compound whose molecules can join together to form polymers

Polymer

molecules composed of many monomers; makes up macromolecules

Macromolecules

large molecules found in living things, ex: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

Condensation Polymerization

also known as dehydration synthesis, removes an OH and H during the synthesis of a new molecule, builds up polymers, ATP is required

Dehydration Synthesis

also known as condensation polymerization, removes an OH and H during the synthesis of a new molecule, builds up polymers, ATP is required

Hydrolysis

breaks a covalent bond by adding OH and H from a water molecule, purpose if for breaking down polymers, water is required

Steroids

fatty 4 rings, cholesterol and sex hormones, made of 4 fused rings, ex: cortisol (stress adaptation)

Triglycerides

three fatty acids attached to a molecule of glycerol, there are saturated blank and unsaturated blank

Glycerol

Combines with fatty acids to make lipids.

Fatty Acids

made with C,H,O, insoluble in water, store E, insulation, protective coverings, major part of cell membranes, blank acids

Hydrophilic

Attracted to water

Hydrophobic

Not attracted to water

Steroid Hormones

4 fatty rings

Lipids are Good

used to store energy (~36kj/grams), concentrated sources of energy that can be broken down, acts as a shock absorber and a good insulator, reduce heat losses to environment, waterproofing of some surfaces, transmits chemical messages via hormones, this proves that...

Monosaccharide

carbohydrates, simple sugar molecule, simple ring structures, ex: glucose, fructose, galactose

Disaccharide

carbohydrates, a double sugar molecule made of two monosaccharides bonded together through dehydration synthesis, ex: lactose, maltose, sucrose

Polysaccharide

carbohydrates, 3 or more monosaccharides, ex: glycogen, starch, cellulose

Glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger

Fructose

monosaccharide, fruit sugar

Galactose

monosaccharide, milk sugar

Glycogen

polysaccharides, how animals store glucose

Starch

polysaccharides, how plants store glucose

Cellulose

polysaccharides, structure in plants, makes up the cell walls, ex: corn starch

Chitin

a structural carbohydrate, arthropod exoskeleton and fungal cell wall, modified form of cellulose

Isomer

molecules with the same chemical formula but different structures

Compounds

2 or more elements chemically combined

Ionic Bonds

the outermost electrons of one atom are transferred permanently to another atom. The atom that loses the electrons becomes positively charged; the atom that gains the electrons becomes negatively charged

Covalent Bonds

Bonds created by sharing electrons with other atoms

Hydrogen Bonds

holds together different compounds, one side is negatively charged, one side is positively charged, weak bond

Polarity

Molecules having uneven distribution of charges

Cohesion

when two of the same polar molecules form H bonds with each other

Adhesion

when two different molecules form H bonds with each other

Specific Heat Capacity

the energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius, cohesion between water molecules raises this

Solvent

A liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances

Solution

a mixture that forms when one substance dissolves another, homogeneous mixture

Solutes

substance dissolved in a solution

Organic Compounds

Compounds that contain carbon

1:2:1

ratio of C:H:O in carbs

Elements in each macromolecule

Carbohydrates (CHO)

Lipids (CHO)

Proteins (CHON)

Nucleic Acids (CHONP)

Enzymes

an organic catalyst made of protein, lowers the activation energy of a chemical reaction, speed up chemical reactions that take place in cells, typically they are bigger than their substrates

Catalyst

a substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction without entering the reaction itself, they can be inorganic (heat) or organic (enzymes), most are organic

Active Site

a region on an enzyme that binds to a protein or other substance during a reaction.

Substrate

The reactant on which an enzyme works.

Product

A substance produced in a chemical reaction

Lock and Key Model

The model of the enzyme that shows the substrate fitting perfectly into the active site

Induced Fit

a type of model, enzyme is not rigid and changes shape slightly when the substrate enters, still specific to one substrate

Enzyme-Substrate Complex

A temporary complex formed when an enzyme binds to its substrate molecule(s).

Coenzymes

enzyme helpers, bind to enzyme and help it to better fit with its substrate, organic (vitamins)

Cofactors

enzyme helpers, bind to enzyme and help it to better fit with its substrate, inorganic (metal ions like iron)

Factors that effect enzyme activity

pH, concentration, temperature

pH and Enzyme Action

each enzyme has a specific pH in which it will work, different enzymes work at different pH levels, ex: enzyme in stomach is more acidic so lower pH better, enzyme in mouth touches many different substances so in between pH better, changes in pH can denature enzymes

Temperature and Enzyme Activity

all enzymes have an optimal temperature at which they work the most effectively, if temperatures get too high enzymes change shape (become denatured), cannot bind with its substrate and can no longer do its job

Denature

polypeptide chains unravel, losing their specific shape and as a result their function, ex: changes in salt concentration, changes in pH, excessive heat