WHAP: Time Period 2 (3.1-4.7)

How did Land-Based empires expand their territory in the time c. 1450-1750?

Imperial expansion relied on the increased use of gunpowder, cannons, and armed trade to establish large empires in both hemispheres.

Describe the rise and expansion of the Ottoman Empire.

With the fall of the Mongol Khanate (kingdom) on the Arabian peninsula in the mid 1300s, the Ottoman royal family led the turkic nomads (Sunni Muslims) of Central Asia to come to dominate much of the Muslim world. Ottoman military success and expansion came from their command of gunpowder. By the mid 1500s, led by Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman empire was the largest and most powerful land empire in Europe and the Middle East. The empire quickly expanded their control to the Balkans and North Africa. Often tension with the Safavid to their east would lead to conflict.

(HUB Date) 1453 CE
Ottomans seized Constantinople.

Represents the beginning of the era of Land-Based empires using gunpowder and other methods to expand and maintain control of their empires. Here, the Muslim Ottomans, push into the Christian European continent demonstrating the supremacy of Muslim technology. With the competition, the Ottomans cutoff European access to goods from the various long-distance trade routes causing Europeans to look for access to these trade routes elsewhere.

Describe the rise and expansion of the Mughal Empire.

This Islamic (Sunni) empire was established in India following the defeat of the Delhi Sultanate in 1526 by Babar, largely due to their command of gunpowder. During the pinnacle of the empire, Akbar the Great unified much of the Indian subcontinent, employing religious tolerance in an attempt to rule the Hindu majority of the subcontinent without dissent (eliminated jizya or "head tax" imposed on non-Muslims). Islamic art and architecture flourished under the Mughals, as evidenced by the building of the Taj Mahal.

Describe the rise and expansion of the Russian Empire.

After breaking free of Mongol control in the late 1400s, princes from Moscow began to take control of much of Russia, eliminating the authority of local princes. Ivan The Terrible, grand prince of Moscow, encouraged Russian peasants to settle in lands he had conquered. Ivan centralized his authority, claimed divine rights to rule, and named himself czar, and established Moscow as the capital of the new Russian empire. By the 1600s, Russia began to colonize and expand eastward into the region of Siberia.

Describe the rise and expansion of the Safavid Empire.

Following a war against the Ottoman Turks in 1514, the Safavid family consolidated their control over modern-day Iran and ruled until 1736. They established the Shi'a sect of Islam as the official relgion of the empire. Under Shah Abbas the Great, the army was modernized and long-distance trade flourished. Like other absolute rulers, Abbas sought to strengthen his power and expand central authority at the expense of the nobility. Constant conflict with the Ottomans, coupled with the threat of an increasingly stronger Russian Empire to the north and the Mughal Empire to the south led to ongoing conflict.

Describe the rise and expansion of the Manchu Empire (Qing Dynasty).

Manchus from the north (non-Han peoples) invaded China and claimed the "Mandate of Heaven" in 1644 and ruled until 1911. The majority Chinese (Han) population saw the Manchu as a "foreign" dynasty. The Qing, following the political example of the Ming, ruled through a highly centralized system of Confucian scholar-bureaucrats. The Qing were great patrons of the arts and were responsible for expanding the empire.

What methods did rulers of Land-Based Empires use to administer (run) their government in the time c. 1450-1750?*

Recruitment and use of bureaucratic elites, as well as the development of military professionals, became more common among rulers who wanted to maintain centralized control over their populations and resources. (e.g. Ottoman devshirme, Salaried Samurai)

What methods did rulers of Land-Based empires use to legitimize and justify their power in the time c. 1450-1750?*

Rulers continued to use religious ideas, art, and monumental architecture to legitimize their rule. (e.g. Religious ideas: Mexica practice of human sacrifice, European notion of divine rights of monarch,) (e.g. Art & Monumental Architecture: Qing imperial portraits, Incan Sun Temple of Cuzco, Mughal Taj Mahal, European palaces, such as Versailles)

What methods did rulers of Land-Based empires use to raise money to pay for their expansion in the time c. 1450-1750?*

Rulers used tribute collection, tax farming, and innovative tax-collection systems to generate revenue in order to forward state power and expansion (e.g. Tax-collection systems: Mughal zamindar tax collection, Ottoman tax farming, Mexica tribute lists, Ming practice of collecting taxes in hard currency)

Describe the Renaissance.

A "rebirth" of Greco-Roman culture (arts and intellectual pursuits) in Europe that lasted from the 1300s through the 1500s. It reflected the spirit of individualism though the growth of humanism and encouraged a split from religious-based thinking and a focus on things of this world (secularism). This "rebirth" was largely possible due to the interconnectivity of the world created by the focus of Dar al-Islam on collecting and expanding upon the world's knowledge and the Pax Mongolica. This will become the seed that will cause Europeans to question the preexisting order of the feudal world they existed in.

Describe the Protestant Reformation and its consequences.

In 1517, Martin Luther wrote the Ninety-five Theses, a list of arguments directed against the Roman Catholic Church's practice of selling indulgences (pardoning of sins) and corruption amongst the clergy. The Reformation spread across northern Europe creating a schism within the Catholic church. A new branch of Christianity, Protestantism, developed and spread as a result. In response, the Counter-Reformation led to reforms within the Catholic church. Both reform movements led to the spread of Christianity. Often political leaders used this religious conflict to further and centralize their authority.

(HUB Date) 1618-1648
Thirty Years War (Ottoman Safavid War 1623-1639)

While this represents an ongoing wars of land-based empires, more importantly it represents conflict between schisms in Christianity and Islam. The Thirty Years War was a long lasting conflict between Catholics and Protestants while the Ottoman-Safavid War was a struggle between Sunni and Shi'a
However, both religious conflicts mask a political struggle with European monarchs struggling to take influence away from Catholic Church and the Ottoman and Safavid royal families battling each other.

How and why did Sikhism develop in South Asia (modern-day India) in the time c. 1450-1750?

Sikhism developed in South Asia in a context of interactions between Hinduism and Islam. Religions and religious teachers do not exist in a vacuum: India, at this time, was ruled by Mughal emperors who were Muslim and society was a mix of Muslims and Hindus.

What were the sources/origins of the innovations that made Europe's Age of Exploration possible?

Knowledge, scientific learning, and technology from the Classical, Islamic, and Asian worlds spread, facilitating European technological developments and innovation.

What were some of the maritime technologies that helped usher in Europe's Age of Exploration?*

The developments included the production of new tools, innovations in ship designs, and an improved understanding of regional wind and current patterns--all of which made transoceanic travel and trade possible. (e.g. Innovations in ship design: Caravel, Currack, Fluyt, Dhows e.g. Navigational technologies: Lateen Sail, Magnetic Compass, Astronomical charts, Sternpost Rudder)

Describe Portugal's role in Maritime Exploration c. 1450-1750.

Portugal's government funded a development of navigational technology in order to establish a trading-post empire. Portugal established trade-posts (small port cities on the coast... not colonization) along both the western and eastern shore of Africa and India in order to access the trade goods of the Indian Ocean Trade Network. This was a reaction to the denial of access by the Ottoman Empire to trade goods imported via land routes.

Describe Spain's role in Maritime Exploration c. 1450-1750.

Following the reconquista (retaking of Islamic Spain by Christian monarchs) the Spanish crown sponsored the voyages of Columbus and subsequent voyages across the Atlantic and Pacific, eventually establishing colonies in the Americas. These state sponsored voyages dramatically increased European interest in transoceanic travel and trade.

(HUB Date) 1492 CE
Columbus sailed the "Ocean Blue".

Represents the beginning of the era of Maritime empires (think European states) looking to the ocean to establish new trade routes to access the traditional long-distance trade routes. This begins the slow rise of European political, economic and military power across the globe.

Describe the English and French role in Maritime Exploration c. 1450-1750 c. 1450-1750.

Northern Atlantic crossings were undertaken under English and French sponsorship, often with the goal of finding alternative sailing routes to Asia. The English and French eventually established colonies in North America and the Caribbean islands. The French largely focused their activities on the fur trade in what would become Canada while the English established settlement colonies along the east coast of what would later become the United States.

Describe the Columbian Exchange.

European colonization of the Americas led to the unintentional transfer of disease spreaders, including mosquitoes and rats, and the spread of diseases that were endemic in the Eastern Hemisphere, including smallpox, measles, and malaria. Some of these diseases substantially reduced the indigenous populations, with catastrophic effects in many areas.

Describe the role of crops of the Americas played within the Columbian Exchange.

American foods became staple crops in various parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Diets, life expectancy and standard of living improved in various parts of Afro-Eurasia. (e.g. Corn, Potatoes, Tomatoes, Rubber Tree, Yams)

Describe the role that crops & animals of Afro-Eurasia played within the Columbian Exchange.

Afro-Eurasian fruit trees, grains, sugar, and domesticated animals were brought by Europeans to the Americas, while other foods were brought by African slaves. (e.g. - Domesticated Animals: Horses, Pigs, Cattle) (e.g. - Foods brought by African slaves: Okra, Rice)

Describe the migration of humans as part of the Columbian Exchange.

In the early stages of the Columbian exchange, migration occurred on two fronts. Europeans migrated to the Americas in search of new opportunities. Cash crops, like sugar, were grown primarily on plantations with coerced labor in the form of African slaves. Very few people migrated from the Americas to Afro-Eurasia.

Describe the role that disease played within the Columbian Exchange.

European colonization of the Americas led to the unintentional transfer of disease spreaders, including mosquitoes and rats, and the spread of diseases that were endemic in the Eastern Hemisphere, including smallpox, measles, and malaria. Some of these diseases substantially reduced the indigenous populations, with catastrophic effects in many areas.

How did Spain establish and extend its influence over its colonies in the Americas (Latin America)?*

Often using lethal and horrific methods, Spanish 'conquistadors' will wage direct and indirect war against indigenous populations. Once defeated, indigenous populations left alive would be forced into various coerced labor systems in an attempt to extract resources from the land. (e.g. Examples of Conquistadors: Hernán Cortés, Fransisco Pizzaro

(HUB Date) 1532 CE
Fall of Incan Empire to Pizzaro.

Represents the era when Maritime Empires begin to dominate regions around the world. Here, Spain takes control of the one of the most powerful and advanced civilizations of the Americas and begins the genocide of an entire people. Consequently, Spain will take control of one of the largest silver deposits in the world. Within a decade or so East Asian states will begin to isolate themselves from interactions with Maritime Empires.

Describe the economies established in the Americas by Maritime Empires in the time c. 1450-1750.*

Newly developed colonial economies in the Americas largely depended on agriculture, using existing forced labor systems or developing new ones.. These forced labor systems were used in either cash crop cultivation or the extraction of natural resources (particularly silver). (e.g. Examples of labor systems: the Incan mit'a system now run by the Spanish, and new labor systems including chattel slavery, indentured servitude, and encomienda and hacienda systems.)

How did the establishment of Maritime Empires and continued growth of long-distance trade impact Africa in the time c. 1450-1750?

The expansion of maritime trading networks fostered the growth of states in Africa, including the Asante and the Kingdom of the Kongo, whose participation in trading networks led to an increase in their influence.

How did East Asian states react to the increased presence of European maritime powers in the region c. 1450-1750?

Following the Portuguese arrival in Japan in 1543, European powers began to attempt to establish commercial relationships in East Asia. This was later followed by the arrival of Christian missionaries who sought to convert the indigenous people of East Asia. Fearing foreign cultural influence, Japan developed a policy of isolationism beginning in the 1600s. Similarly, the Ming Dynasty in China established economic policies that regulated interaction with outsiders. The Ming also established a tax policy that allowed for payment in silver only, fueling China's demand for silver and a frenzied drive to supply it by European maritime powers.

What was the status of the Indian Ocean Trade Network in the time c. 1450-1750?*

Despite some disruption and restructuring due to the arrival of Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch merchants, existing trade networks in the Indian Ocean continued to flourish and included intra-Asian trade and Asian merchants. (e.g. - Indian Ocean Asian merchants: Swahili Arabs, Omanis, Gujaratis, Javanese)

Describe the African diaspora as a result of the Atlantic Slave Trade.

With the forced migration of millions of Africans to the New World, African culture spread throughout the Americas, contributing to cultural synthesis. Various languages spoken by Africans were combined with European languages to create new languages or dialects. African traditions blended with those in the Americas, such as in the areas of storytelling and music. New syncretic religious beliefs also emerged such as Vodoun and Obeah.

Describe Mercantilism and how it was employed by maritime empires.

Mercantilism was an economic system that attempted to develop a positive balance of trade while identifying the world economic model as a zero sum game. Mercantilist policies and practices were used by European rulers to expand and control their economies and claim overseas territories. Taxes on imports (tariffs), joint-stock companies, influenced by these mercantilist principles, were used by rulers and merchants to finance exploration and were used by rulers to compete against one another in global trade.

(HUB Date) 1600-1602
British and Dutch East India Companies founded.

Represents the era when European maritime powers began to dominate the world economy. Europeans were past the effort to simply access the major global trade routes. They have developed their own economic system (mercantilism) and economic innovations (joint stock companies) that demonstrate that they are the dominant force in global trade. These two companies, separate from their own countries' governments, will have larger private militaries and wealth than most other countries in the world.

Describe the Atlantic trading system in the time c. 1450-1750.

The fourth great long-distance trade route is established that connects the Americas to the Afro-Eurasian economies. The Atlantic trading system involved the movement of goods, precious metals, and labor, including enslaved people. This is often known as the Triangular Trade. Since this a three sided trade route, the route between Africa and the Americas often transported kidnapped Africans intended to be used as slave on plantations. This portion of the trading system is called the Middle Passage.

What was the demographic impact on Africa resulting from the birth of the Atlantic Slave Trade in the time 1450-1750?

The kidnapping and export of so many millions, particularly men, impacted family life, and in many of the areas from which people were stolen, there tended to be majority female populations. The European use of chattel slavery also led to an increase in intertribal warfare, and over time, the dissolutionof once powerful kingdoms, especially those located along the coast. However, despite the export of so many Africans, the population did not decrease on the continent, as the introduction of new food crops from the Americas helped stabilize the population.

Describe the flow of goods throughout the global economy in the time c. 1450-1750.

The new global circulation of goods was facilitated by chartered European monopoly companies and the global flow of silver, especially from Spanish colonies in the Americas, which was used to purchase Asian goods for the Atlantic markets and satisfy Chinese demand for silver. Regional markets continued to flourish in Afro-Eurasia by using established commercial practices and new transoceanic and regional shipping services developed by European merchants.

Describe the cultural synthesis that developed as a result of the establishment of maritime empires c. 1450-1750.*

The Atlantic trading system involved the movement of labor--including enslaved people--and the mixing of African, American, and European cultures and peoples, with all parties contributing to this cultural synthesis. In some cases, the increase and intensification of interactions between newly connected hemispheres expanded the reach and furthered the development of existing religions, and contributed to religious conflicts and the development of syncretic belief systems and practices. (e.g. - Vodoun, Obeah, Dia de Los Muertos)

Describe the continuity of the labor systems in Afro-Eurasia in the time c. 1450-1750?*

Peasant and artisan labor continued and intensified in many regions as the demand for food and consumer goods increased. (e.g. - Increased peasant and artisan labor: Western Europe--wool and linen, India--cotton, China--silk)

How did conquered people react to the expansion of territory by Maritime Empires in the time c. 1450-1750?*

State expansion and centralization led to resistance from an array of social, political, and economic groups on a local level. (e.g. Local Resistance: Pueblo Revolts, Fronde, Cossack revolts, Maratha Conflict with Mughals, Ana Nzinga's resistance (as ruler of Ndongo and Matamba), Metacom's War (King Philip's War)

How did enslaved people react to the expansion of control by Maritime Empires in the time c. 1450-1750?*

Slave resistance challenged existing authorities in the Americas. (e.g. - Slave Resistance: The establishment of Maroon societies in the Caribbean and Brazil, North American slave resistance)

As both Land-Based and Maritime-Based Empires expanded their territory, how did they deal with the ever-growing cultural diversity of their populations in the time c. 1450-1750?*

Many states, such as the Mughal and Ottoman empires, adopted practices to accommodate the ethnic and religious diversity of their subjects or to utilize economic, political, and military contributions of different ethnic or religious groups. In other cases, states suppressed diversity or limited certain groups' roles in society, politics, or the economy. (e.g. - Expulsion of Jews from Spain and Portugal; the acceptance of Jews in the Ottoman Empire, Restrictive policies against Han Chinese in Qing China, Varying status of different classes of women within the Ottoman Empire)

How did the new trade and economic system impact social class in the time c. 1450-1750?

Imperial conquests and widening global economic opportunities contributed to the formation of new political and economic elites, including in China with the transition to the Qing Dynasty and in the Americas with the rise of the Casta system, and burgeoning middle class in Europe.

Describe the changing influence of elites throughout land-based and maritime empires in the time c. 1450-1750.*

The power of existing political and economic elites fluctuated as the elites confronted new challenges to their ability to affect the policies of the increasingly powerful monarchs and leaders. (e.g. - Existing Elites: Ottoman timars, Russian boyars, European nobility)