AP Psychology: Cognition & Memory | MUHS | Parsons

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89 Terms

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Cognition

Mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, & communicating

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Meta-cognition

Thinking about thinking; tracking & evaluating mental processes

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Prototypes

A mental image or best example of a category which provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories and can help organize unfamiliar items by finding an apropiate category.

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Schemas

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

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Concepts

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

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Accommodation

Alter the schema to include the new information

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Assimilation

Trying to add something to your schema

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Convergent thinking

Narrows down the solutions to the single best option

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Divergent thinking

Expanding the number of possible problem solutions (brainstorm)

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Creativity

Ability to produce new and valuable ideas

Factors involved: Imagination, ventrous, intrinsic motivation, creative environment

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Executive Functions

Mental skills used everyday to learn, work, and manage daily life.

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Algorithms

Step by step strategy that leads to a specific solution

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Heuristic

Step-saving strategy which generates a quick solution

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Insight

Sudden realization; a leap forward in thinking that leads to a solution

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Trial & Error

Trying various possible solutions, and if it fails, trying others

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Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions

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Mental Set (fixation)

inability to see a problem from a new perspective

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Functional Fixedness

Using something for a task that it usually isn’t used for

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Overconfidence

Our tendency to be more confident in our abilities than is objectively justified

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Belief Perseverance

Maintaining a belief even after it has been proven wrong

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Framing

People reacting different depending on how you present it

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Representative heuristics

judgements based on how well they match our prototypes

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Gambler’s Fallacy

Incorrect assumptions; The odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn’t occured recently

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Availability heuristics

judgements based on availability- what comes readily to mind; sometimes based upon our more recent experience

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Memory

Any induction that learning has persisted over time; It is our ability to encode, store, and retrieve information

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Recall

Retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time.

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Recognition

Identifying items previously learned

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Relearning

Assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

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Encode

The process of getting information into the memory system

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Store

The process of retaining information overtime

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Retrieve

The process of getting information out of memory storage

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Parallel processing

Human ability to address multiple aspects simultaneously

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Sensory Memory

The immediate very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Duration: less than ½ - a few seconds

Capacity: Unlimited

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Iconic

stuff you see

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Echoic

stuff you hear

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Short-Term Memory

Activated memory that holds a few (5-9) itmes briefly (10-30 seconds) before the information is stored or forgotten

Duration: 20 seconds- 20 minutes

Capacity: 7 +\-2

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Long-Term Memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

Duration: Unlimited

Capacity: Unlimited

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Working Memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information and data retrieved from long-term memory

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The Central Executive

Responsible for distributing resources between the two loops

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Phonological Loop

Briefly holds auditory info

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Visuospatial Sketchpad

briefly holds objects’ appearance & location in space; visualize and manipulate visual and spatial information in our mind

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Prospective Memory

The ability to remember to carry out intended actions in the future

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Neurogenesis

ability to create new neurons

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Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

An increase in cell firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

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Implicit Memories

Memory without conscious recall (non-declarative)
Processed in cerebellum and basal ganglia

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Explicit Memories

Memory with conscious recall (declarative)
Processed in hippocampus and frontal lobes

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Semantic

Facts and general knowledge

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Episodic

Personally experienced events

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Automatic Processing

implicit memory; procedural

Space, Time, Frequency

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Effortful Processing

Explicit Memories

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Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, managable units: often occurs automatically

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Mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

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Hierarchies

Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivied into categories and sub-categories.

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Massed practice

Learning a large amount of material in a single session; less effective than distributed practice

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Distributed Practice

The most effective technique to enhance encoding

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Spacing effect

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through mass study/practice

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Testing effect

Enchanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information

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Method of Loci

Involves associating information with visual imagery in familiar spatial environments

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Shallow Processing

Encodes on an elementary level, such as word’s letters or, at a more intermediate level, a words sound

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Semantic/Deep Processing

Encodes semantically, based on the meaning of the words

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Elaborative rehearsal

the process of using active thinking about the meaning of the term that needs to be remembered rather than just repeating the word/information over and over again.

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Hippocampus (& frontal lobes)

Processes Explict memories

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Cerebellum

Processes implicit memories

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Basal Ganglia

Processes motor movement & skill

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Amygdala

Triggered by stress hormones and boosts activity in the memory processes (emotional memories)

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Memory consolidation

The neural storage or long-term memory, allows for more to be stored by only keeping the most crucial details

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Flashbulb memories

Clear, sustained memories of an emotionally significant moments or events

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Priming

The activation often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

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Context-dependent memory/Encoding Specificity Principle

The activation of memory when one returns to the setting of the original encoding

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Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

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State-dependent memory

The tendency to recall expierences that are consistent with the state in which a person was at the time of encoding.

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Serial Position effect

Our tendency to best remember the items at the beggining and end of a list

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Recency effect

Better recall at the end of list

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Primacy effect

better recall at the start of list

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Testing effect

Repeated self-testing (MQs) and rehearsal of previously studied material

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Interleaving

a learning strategy that talks about taking two subjects and learning about them simultaneously

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Retrograde Amnesia

An inability to recall past memory

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Anterograde

an inability to form new memories

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Encoding failure

didn’t pay attention well enough to properlly create the memory

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Storage decay

Memory has faded over time

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Retroactive Interference

The backwords disruptive effect of newer learning on old information

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Proactive Interference

The forward acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

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Repression

Purposely losing a memory

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Constructive memory

The process by which memories are formed and recalled, often influenced by existing knowledge and beliefs, leading to potential distortions.

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Misinformation effect (research of Elizabeth LOFTUS)

states that a person recall of an event is negatively impacted and becomes less accurate due to information after the event.

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Source Amnesia

Impaired memory to how, where, or when information was learned despite good memory for the information itself.

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Deja Vu

the eerie sense that you have experienced something before; cues from a current expierences may unconsiously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

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Alzheimer’s Disease

A progression and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical function

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Infantile amnesia

experience of not consciously remembering the first three years of our lives (we do recall skills & reactions)