Imperialism

How did Darwin’s theory of natural selection influence imperialist thinking?

Darwin’s ideas were misused to justify radical hierarchies through “Social Darwinism.” Figures like Karl Pearson argued that conflict and domination by “superior” races (whites) over “inferior” ones were natural and necessary for progress.

How did John Hobson critique imperialism in 1902?

Hobson argued that imperialism served capitalist elites, not national interest. He criticized its moral justifications (like spreading civilization) and exposed its economic motivations and human costs.

What is the modern anthropological understanding of race, and how does it challenge 19th-century imperial ideology?

The American Anthropological Association declared race a social, not biological, construct. Genetic diversity exists more within groups than between them, undermining claims of racial superiority used to justify imperialism.

What role did technology play in the European conquest of Africa?

Quinine protected Europeans from malaria, steamboats enabled river navigation, and advanced riffles ensured military superiority — allowing deep territorial penetration and domination.

Why is King Leopold II’s rule in the Congo infamous?

Leopold exploited the Congo as his personal colony (1876-1908), enforcing brutal labor for rubber production. Atrocities like mutilation and mass death led to international scandal and eventual Belgian state takeover.

What was the Berlin Conference (1884-85), and why was it important?

Hosted by Bismarck, it divided Africa among European powers without consulting Africans. It institutionalized the race for colonies and formalized imperial expansion.

How did British opium smuggling lead to war with China?

Britain reversed a trade imbalance by smuggling Indian opium to China. Addiction soared, silver reserved drained, and Chinese officials attempted suppression — triggering the First Opium War (1839-42).

What were the consequences of the Treaty of Nanking (1842)?

China ceded Hong Kong, opened five treaty ports, granted Britain “most favored nation” status, and accepted extraterritoriality — ushering in the ‘Century of Humiliation.”

How did the Second Opium War deepen foreign control over China?

New traits opened 80+ ports, legalized opium, allowed foreign travel in China, and granted permanent embassies in Beijing. It marked the loss of Chinese sovereignty and fueled anti-Western sentiment.

How did the Meiji Restoration transform Japan into an imperial power?

After 1868, Japan centralized power, industrialized, modernized its army, and reformed education. Inspired by Western models, Japan adopted imperial strategies to compete globally.

What were the effects of the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95)?

Japan defeated Qing China, gaining dominance in Korea and Taiwan. It proved Japan’s success in modernization and its rise as a new imperial power.

Why was the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) historically significant?

Japan’s victory shocked the world — it was the first time an Asian power defeated a European one. It marked Japan’s emergence as a global power and changed the geopolitical balance in East Asia.

How was imperialism justified using both science and morality?

European powers used Social Darwinism to claim racial superiority and framed imperialism as a civilizing mission — bringing Christianity, commerce, and “progress” to “backward” societies.

In what ways did imperialism cause long-term global inequalities?

It exploited colonized labor, resources, and land, entrenching economic underdevelopment. Arbitrary borders, cultural destruction, and racial ideologies left legacies of conflict and inequality.

How does the contemporary opioid crisis reflect global legacies of imperial drug trade?

Like the 19th-century British opium trade in China, the U.S. opioid crisis involves powerful corporations (e.g, Purdue Pharma) profiting from addiction — often tied to transnational flows of drugs and chemicals (e.g, fentanyl from China via Mexico).