Final Exam Review: Human Anatomy and Physiology

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering the Endocrine, Blood, Heart, Respiratory, Lymphatic, Immunity, Digestive, Metabolism, Urinary, Fluid, and Reproductive systems based on final exam review notes.

Water-soluble hormones

Hormones that dissolve easily in blood, cannot pass through the cell membrane, bind to receptors on the outside of cells, and work quickly.

Fat-soluble hormones

Hormones that do not dissolve easily in blood, usually need carrier proteins, can pass through the cell membrane, bind to receptors inside cells, and have longer-lasting effects.

Tropic hormone

A hormone that targets another endocrine gland and tells it to release its own hormones.

Infundibulum

A stalk that connects the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland.

Hypophyseal portal vein

Blood vessels that carry hormones from the hypothalamus directly to the anterior pituitary.

Prolactin ($PRL$)

Targets the mammary glands and stimulates milk production.

Growth Hormone ($GH$)

Targets most body tissues, especially bones and muscles, and promotes growth and metabolism.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone ($ACTH$)

Targets the adrenal cortex and stimulates the release of cortisol.

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone ($TSH$)

Targets the thyroid gland and stimulates the release of thyroid hormones.

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone ($FSH$)

Targets the ovaries and testes, stimulating egg development in females and sperm production in males.

Luteinizing Hormone ($LH$)

Targets the ovaries and testes, triggering ovulation and hormone production in females and testosterone production in males.

Antidiuretic Hormone ($ADH$)

Targets the kidneys and increases water reabsorption, helping the body conserve water.

Oxytocin

Targets the uterus and mammary glands; stimulates uterine contractions during labor and milk release during breastfeeding.

Parathyroid Hormone ($PTH$)

Raises the amount of calcium in the blood by helping the body get calcium from bones, food, and the kidneys.

Aldosterone

Helps the kidneys keep sodium and water in the body, which helps maintain blood pressure.

Cortisol

Helps the body respond to stress and increases blood sugar levels.

Epinephrine

The “fight-or-flight” hormone that increases heart rate, blood pressure, and energy.

Insulin

Lower blood sugar by helping cells take glucose out of the blood; produced by the Islets of Langerhans.

Glucagon

Raises blood sugar by telling the liver to release stored glucose; produced by the Islets of Langerhans.

Polyuria

Frequent urination caused by high blood sugar leading to extra water loss in urine.

Ketoacidosis

A condition where the body breaks down fat and produces acids called ketones when cells cannot use glucose for energy.

Polyphagia

Feeling hungry more often because cells are not getting enough glucose for energy.

Melatonin

A hormone that helps regulate the sleep-wake cycle.

Cholecystokinin ($CCK$)

Stimulates the release of digestive enzymes and bile.

Thymosin

Helps $T$ cells mature for the immune system.

Renin

Helps regulate blood pressure by starting a process that raises blood pressure.

Erythropoietin ($EPO$)

Stimulates the production of red blood cells.

Gastrin

Stimulates the stomach to produce acid for digestion.

Secretin

Stimulates the pancreas to release bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid in the small intestine.

Plasma

The liquid part of blood that carries blood cells, nutrients, hormones, and wastes.

Hematocrit

The percentage of blood made up of red blood cells.

Carbaminohemoglobin

Hemoglobin with carbon dioxide attached to it.

Oxyhemoglobin

Hemoglobin carrying oxygen.

Deoxyhemoglobin

Hemoglobin that is not carrying oxygen.

Polycythemia

A condition in which there are too many red blood cells in the blood.

Anemia

A decrease in the blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity.

Diapedesis

The movement of white blood cells out of blood vessels and into tissues.

Chemotaxis

The movement of cells toward an area where chemicals are signaling them to go, such as an infection site.

Hemostasis

The process that stops bleeding after a blood vessel is injured.

Embolus

A clot or other object that travels through the bloodstream and can block a blood vessel.

Thrombus

A blood clot that forms and stays in one place inside a blood vessel.

Globin

The protein portion of hemoglobin.

Heme

The iron-containing pigment portion of hemoglobin.

Iron ($Fe^{2+}$)

The part of hemoglobin that binds to oxygen.

Hemorrhagic anemia

Anemia caused by blood loss from injury, surgery, or heavy bleeding.

Iron deficiency anemia

Anemia caused by not having enough iron to make hemoglobin.

Aplastic anemia

Anemia caused by damage to the bone marrow, resulting in reduced blood cell production.

Pernicious anemia

Anemia caused by a lack of vitamin $B_{12}$, usually because the body cannot absorb it properly.

Hemolytic anemia

Anemia caused by red blood cells being destroyed faster than they can be replaced.

Sickle cell anemia

Anemia caused by an inherited genetic mutation that produces abnormally shaped red blood cells.

Neutrophils

White blood cells that fight bacterial infections by engulfing and destroying bacteria.

Eosinophils

White blood cells that help fight parasites and are involved in allergic reactions.

Basophils

White blood cells that release histamine and heparin during allergic and inflammatory responses.

Monocytes

White blood cells that leave the bloodstream and become macrophages to engulf pathogens and debris.

Lymphocytes

White blood cells including $B$ cells (make antibodies) and $T$ cells (attack infected cells) to recognize and destroy pathogens.

Vascular spasm

The first step of hemostasis where the damaged blood vessel constricts to reduce blood loss.

Platelet plug formation

The second step of hemostasis where platelets stick to the damaged area to form a temporary plug.

Coagulation

The third step of hemostasis where clotting factors form fibrin threads to create a stable blood clot.

Ischemia

Reduced blood flow to a tissue, resulting in insufficient oxygen.

Angina pectoris

Chest pain caused by temporary reduced blood flow to the heart muscle.

Myocardial infarction

A heart attack; death of heart muscle due to blocked blood flow.

Sinus rhythm

Normal heartbeat controlled by the $SA$ (sinoatrial) node.

Fibrillation

Rapid, uncoordinated contractions of the heart muscle that prevent effective pumping.

Systole

The phase when the heart contracts and pumps blood out.

Diastole

The phase when the heart relaxes and fills with blood.

End diastolic volume ($EDV$)

Amount of blood in a ventricle after it fills at the end of diastole.

Stroke volume

Amount of blood pumped out of a ventricle per beat.

Cardiac output

Amount of blood the heart pumps per minute.

Preload

The amount of blood filling the heart before it contracts.

Afterload

The resistance the heart must pump against to push blood out.

Pulmonary circulation

Blood flow from the right side of the heart to the lungs for oxygen and back to the left side.

Systemic circulation

Blood flow from the left side of the heart to the body and back to the right side.

Myocardium

The thick middle layer of the heart made of cardiac muscle tissue; it contracts to pump blood.

Chordae tendineae

Strong tendon-like cords that attach $AV$ valve flaps to papillary muscles to prevent backflow.

$P$ wave

ECG feature representing atrial depolarization.

$QRS$ complex

ECG feature representing ventricular depolarization.

$T$ wave

ECG feature representing ventricular repolarization.

Vasoconstriction

Narrowing of blood vessels, which increases blood pressure and reduces blood flow.

Vasodilation

Widening of blood vessels, which decreases blood pressure and increases blood flow.

Vasa vasorum

Small blood vessels that supply the walls of large blood vessels.

Pulse pressure

The difference between systolic and diastolic pressure.

Hydrostatic pressure

The force of blood pushing fluid out of capillaries into surrounding tissues.

Osmotic pressure

The force that pulls water back into capillaries due to proteins in the blood.

Edema

Swelling caused by excess fluid trapped in body tissues.

Continuous capillary

Capillary with endothelial cells tightly joined; found in muscles, skin, and brain.

Fenestrated capillary

Capillary with pores in endothelial cells for faster exchange; found in kidneys and intestines.

Sinusoid

Discontinuous capillary with large gaps found in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow.

Hypovolemic shock

Shock caused by too little blood volume due to bleeding or dehydration.

Cardiogenic shock

Shock caused by the heart's inability to pump effectively.

Anaphylactic shock

Shock caused by a severe allergic reaction leading to widespread vasodilation.

Pneumothorax

Air in the pleural cavity that causes a collapsed lung.

Tidal volume ($TV$)

Amount of air inhaled or exhaled in a normal breath.

Vital capacity ($VC$)

Maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximal inhalation.

Eupnea

Normal, relaxed breathing.

External respiration

Gas exchange between alveoli and blood in the lungs.

Internal respiration

Gas exchange between blood and body tissues.

Type $I$ alveolar cell

Thin squamous cells that make up most of the alveolar wall and allow gas exchange.

Type $II$ alveolar cell

Cells that produce surfactant to prevent alveoli from collapsing.

Innate immunity

Nonspecific, immediate defense the body is born with, including skin and inflammation.

Adaptive immunity

Specific immune response that develops after exposure and creates memory.