Lecture Notes: Macromolecules and Biochemistry Vocabulary

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and basic biochemistry concepts from the lecture notes.

Monosaccharide

The simplest carbohydrate; basic subunit of carbohydrates (e.g., glucose).

Disaccharide

Two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis; examples include sucrose, lactose, maltose.

Polysaccharide

Long chains of monosaccharides; can be storage (starch in plants, glycogen in animals) or structural (cellulose).

Glucose

A primary monosaccharide; C6H12O6; major energy source for cells; rapidly absorbed.

Fructose

A monosaccharide found in many fruits; combines with glucose to form sucrose.

Ribose

Five-carbon sugar used in RNA.

Deoxyribose

Five-carbon sugar used in DNA; lacks one oxygen compared to ribose.

Sucrose

Disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose; table sugar; broken down by sucrase.

Lactose

Disaccharide in dairy products; broken down by lactase; lactose intolerance occurs when lactase is deficient.

Maltose

Disaccharide of glucose units; produced during starch digestion.

Cellulose

Structural, insoluble carbohydrate; provides dietary fiber; indigestible by humans.

Starch

Storage carbohydrate in plants; a glucose polymer stored as an energy source.

Glycogen

Storage carbohydrate in animals; highly branched glucose polymer stored mainly in liver and muscles.

Glucagon

Hormone that raises blood glucose by signaling the liver to release glucose.

Dehydration synthesis

Chemical reaction that joins monomers by removing a water molecule; builds disaccharides and polysaccharides.

Hydrolysis

Chemical breakdown of polymers into monomers by adding water.

Triglyceride

Fat; glycerol backbone with three fatty acids; main energy storage lipid; hydrophobic.

Saturated fatty acid

Fatty acid with no double bonds; fully hydrogenated; usually solid at room temperature.

Unsaturated fatty acid

Fatty acid with one or more double bonds; kinked chains; usually liquid at room temperature; healthier fats.

Phospholipid

Lipid with two fatty acids, a glycerol backbone, and a phosphate head; amphipathic; forms cellular membranes.

Amphipathic

Molecule with both hydrophilic (polar) and hydrophobic (nonpolar) regions.

Cholesterol

Steroid lipid; structural component of membranes; precursor to steroid hormones; present in cell membranes.

Steroid

A lipid with four fused rings (e.g., cholesterol, hormones like estrogen and testosterone).

Prostaglandin

Local hormone-like lipids involved in pain, inflammation, and other signaling processes; inhibited by NSAIDs.

Leukotriene

Inflammatory signaling lipids derived from arachidonic acid; play roles in immune responses.

Amino acid

Building block of proteins; contains amino group, carboxyl group, and distinctive R group; 20 standard amino acids (9 essential).

Peptide bond

Covalent bond linking two amino acids; forms dipeptides, polypeptides.

Primary structure

Linear sequence of amino acids in a protein, determined by DNA.

Secondary structure

Initial folding of the peptide into α-helix or β-pleated sheet via hydrogen bonds.

Tertiary structure

Three-dimensional folding of a single polypeptide; determines active site and function.

Quaternary structure

Assembly of multiple polypeptide subunits (e.g., hemoglobin).

Fibrous protein

Structural proteins with elongated shapes (e.g., keratin, elastin, collagen) often insoluble and supportive.

Globular protein

Compact, functional proteins (e.g., enzymes, antibodies) typically soluble.

Denaturation

Loss of protein structure and function due to heat, pH change, or chemicals.

Enzyme

Protein that acts as a biological catalyst; lowers activation energy; has an active site where substrates bind.

Nucleic acid

Biological macromolecule (DNA and RNA) that stores, transmits, and expresses genetic information.

Nucleotide

Structural unit of nucleic acids composed of a sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), a phosphate, and a nitrogenous base.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid; stores genetic information; double helix; bases A-T and C-G; thymine present.

RNA

Ribonucleic acid; helps translate genetic information into proteins; sugar is ribose; bases A-U-C-G; thymine replaced by uracil.

Adenine

Purine base that pairs with thymine in DNA and with uracil in RNA.

Thymine

Pyrimidine base in DNA; pairs with adenine.

Uracil

Pyrimidine base in RNA; pairs with adenine instead of thymine.

Base pairing

A pairs with T (DNA) or with U (RNA); C pairs with G; stabilizes nucleic acid structures.

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate; cellular energy currency; produced aerobically or anaerobically.

Solvent

The dissolving medium in a solution; water is the universal solvent in biology.

Solute

Substance dissolved in a solvent.

pH

Measure of how acidic or basic a solution is; neutral is 7; lower values are acidic, higher values are basic.