Studied by 2 people
Medulla
Regulates involuntary functions such as respiration and heart rate. involuntary mouth movements (coughing, sneezing, swallowing), respiration, heart rate, blood pressure
Pons
Involved in movements on both sides of the body and plays a role in sleep. Serves as a communication bridge.
Cerebellum
Coordinates balance and fine motor skills.
Reticular Formation
Controls muscle tone, eye movement, and sleep-wake cycles.
Substantia Nigra
Produces dopamine; low levels associated with Parkinson's disease.
Hypothalamus
Regulates hormones, hunger, thirst, temperature, and circadian rhythms.
Thalamus
Acts as a sensory relay station for motor signals (except smell).
Amygdala
Processes emotions and attaches them to memories.
Basal Ganglia
Involved in motor control, habit formation, and procedural learning.
Pituitary Gland
Regulates hormones related to growth, stress, and reproduction.
Cingulate Cortex
Involved in emotional reactions to pain and motivation.
Hippocampus
Essential for memory formation and spatial navigation.
Temporal Lobe
Responsible for auditory processing and language comprehension.
Parietal Lobe
Processes sensory information and spatial awareness.
Occipital Lobe
Responsible for visual processing.
Frontal Lobe
Involved in higher-order thinking, decision-making, and motor control.
Broca’s Area
Responsible for speech production and grammar.
Prefrontal Cortex
Involves executive functions like working memory and social judgment.
Dorsolateral PFC
Associated with executive functions and working memory.
Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex
Handles decision-making and emotion regulation.
Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)
Medications for depression that increase serotonin availability.
Dopamine
A neurotransmitter involved in movement, mood, and reward.
Acetylcholine
Involved in movement, attention, and early memory.
Glutamate
An excitatory neurotransmitter; excessive levels can cause excitotoxicity.
Norepinephrine
Involved in arousal, attention, and mood regulation.
Serotonin
Regulates mood, sleep, and appetite.
GABA
An inhibitory neurotransmitter that regulates anxiety and arousal.
Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs)
Medications that inhibit serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake.
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs)
Medications that prevent the breakdown of neurotransmitters due to oxidization for depression.
First Generation anti-psychotics
Medications primarily used to treat schizophrenia and other severe mental disorders by blocking dopamine receptors.
Second generation anti psychotics treatment purposes
Medications used to treat schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, often with fewer side effects than first generation drugs, and they also affect serotonin receptors.
anticholinergic side effects
are unintended effects caused by medications that block the action of acetylcholine, leading to symptoms such as dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, and urinary retention.
Low potency first generation anti-psychotics side effects
anticholinergic side effects: urinary retention, constipation, blurred vision, dry mouth
Types of low potency first generation anti-psychotics
Chlopromazine (throazine) and Thioridazine (mellari)
Types of high potency first generation anti-psychotics
Haloperidol (Haldol) and Fluphenazine (Prolixin).
side effects for first generation high potency side effects
extrapyramidal symptoms, akathisia, tardive dyskinesia, and neuroleptic malignant syndrome.
extrapyramidal symptoms
movement disorders such as tremors, rigidity, and bradykinesia caused by antipsychotic medication. These symptoms result from dopamine receptor blockade in the basal ganglia.
Second generation anti-psychotics
medications that primarily target serotonin receptors and are used to treat schizophrenia and other mental disorders.
side effects of second generation anti-psychotics
weight gain, metabolic syndrome, sedation, and increased risk of diabetes.
which generation of anti-psychotics has the least side effects?
Second generation anti-psychotics
Disorder that affects the medulla
characterized by respiratory issues and cardiovascular disturbances.
Drugs that affect the medulla
Opioids disrupt functioning and can lead to death.
Drugs that affect the pons
Benzodiaziapians and barbiturates to improve sleep
Disorders that affect the pons
Sleep disorders
Disorders that affect the cerebellum
Ataxia, symptoms of Parkinsonism
Ataxia
A neurological sign consisting of lack of voluntary coordination of muscle movements, which can affect walking, hand movements, speech, and eye movements.
Drugs that affect the cerebellum
Benzodiazaiapins and anti convulsants
Disorders that affect the Reticular Formation
Coma or sleep disturbances
Drugs that affect the reticular formation
stimulants can enhance arousal and attention by increasing activity in this area, while depressants may inhibit activity, leading to drowsiness or coma
Drugs that affect the Substantia Nigra
Ledova (increases dopamine), antipsychotics, stimulants (increase of dopamine in reward pathways)
Disorders that affect the Substantia Nigra
Parkinson's disease and other movement disorders.
Disorders that affect the Hypothalamus
Disorders related to abnormal hormone regulation, eating disorders, sleep disorders, and temperature regulation issues.
Medications that affect the hypothalamus
Hormone therapies
Disorders that affect the thalamus
sensory processing issues, movement disorders, and alterations in consciousness
Disorders that affect the Amygdala
PTSD, anxiety disorders, depression and Kluver-Bucy syndrome
Kluver-Bucy syndrome
characterized by symptoms such as excessive eating, hypersexuality, and changes in emotional responses
Kluver-Bucy syndrome is caused by
damage to the amygdala
Disorders that affect the basal ganglia
Conditions such as Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and Wilson's disease that impact motor control, movement regulation, and other neurological functions.
Drugs that affect the basal ganglia
Medications such as antipsychotics and dopaminergic agents that influence motor control and neurological functions.
Disorders that affect the Pituitary Gland
Conditions that can involve hormonal imbalances such as pituitary tumors, acromegaly, Cushing's disease, and diabetes insipidus.
Drugs that influence the pituitary gland
Hormone therapies that address hormonal imbalances and conditions related to the pituitary gland, such as growth hormone deficiencies and disorders affecting hormone regulation.
Drugs that are associated with the cingulate cortex
CBT increases the volume of the cingulate cortex
Disorders associated with the Cingulate Cortex
Conditions such as depression, anxiety, and chronic pain that affect emotional regulation.
Disorders that affect the hippocampus
Alzheimer's, amnesia, PTSD (reduction in hippocampal volume
Drugs that affect the hippocampus
NMDA receptor antagonists
Diseases that impact the temporal lobe
Epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, auditory processing disorder, Wernicke's aphasia
Wernicke's Aphasia
Fluent speech: Speech is smooth and grammatically correct but often nonsensical or meaningless ("word salad").
Poor comprehension: Difficulty understanding spoken or written language.
Paraphasias: Use of incorrect or made-up words (e.g., calling a pen a "flim").
Unawareness: Individuals are often unaware of their language difficulties.
Broca’s Aphasia
Non-fluent speech, intact comphrension, difficulty repeating
Causes of Wernike’s aphasia
Stroke (most common), Traumatic brain injury, Brain tumor or infection affecting the left temporal lobe
What is the primary difference between Wernicke's Aphasia and Broca's Aphasia?
Wernicke’s aphasia = speech is fluent
Broca’s aphasia = speech is non fluent, intact comprehension
Causes of Broca’s aphasia
Stroke (most common), Traumatic brain injury, Brain tumor or infection affecting the left frontal lobe
Pariatal Lobe disorders
Stroke, sensory processing disorder, spatial neglect, somatosensory agnosias, Gerstmann’s syndrome
Gerstmann’s syndrome cause
caused by damage to the left parietal lobe
Gerstmann’s syndrome symptoms
Agraphia/Dysgraphia: Difficulty writing, Acalculia: Difficulty performing simple math calculations, Finger Agnosia: Inability to identify or distinguish fingers on oneself or others, and Left-Right Disorientation
Occipital Lobe Disorders
visual agnosia, visual hallucinations, achromatopsia (loss of color vision), cortical blindness, prosopagnosia
Occipital Lobe Drugs
Hallucinogens (e.g., LSD), anti-migraine drugs (e.g., triptans)
Frontal lobe disorders
ADHD, schizophrenia, traumatic brain injury (TBI), stroke
Drugs that affect the frontal lobe
Stimulants (e.g., Adderall), antipsychotics (e.g., Haloperidol)
Dorsolateral PFC disorders
MDD, GAD, OCD
Ventrolateral PFC disorders
Social anxiety disorder and GAD
Ventromedial prefrontal cortex disorders
MDD, OCD, GAD, PTSD & schizophrenia
Orbital Cortex Disorders
MDD, bipolar, OCD, PTSD, schizophrenia, substance disorders
Primary motor cortex deficits
range from weakness to paralysis in one or more muscles in the opposite side of the body
Orbital cortex deficits
Impulsivity, social inappropriateness, aggressive behaviors
Ventromedial prefrontal cortex deficits
impaired decision-making, moral judgment, confabulation, social cognition, blunted emotions
Ventrolateral PFC deficits
impairments in decision-making, behavioral and emotional self-control
Dorsolateral PFC deficits
deficits in working memory, judgment, perseverative responses, and apathy.
Low amounts of dopamine
Parkinsons and ADHD
High amounts of dopamine
Tourette’s and Schizophrenia
Low amounts of acetylcholine
Early memory loss in Alzheimer's
High amounts of Glutamate
glutamate excitotoxicity (cell damage and death)
stroke, seizures, Huntington’s, Parkinson’s
Low amounts of norephrine
catecholamine hypothesis and depression
High amounts of norephrine
mania
Low amounts of serotonin
Depression, bulimia, OCD, migraines
High amounts of serotonin
ASD and Schizophrenia
Low amounts of GABA
anxiety and insomnia
High amounts of GABA
memory impairment and daytime drowsiness
SSRI use
First line treatment for MDD & PDD
SSRI side effects
fewer side effects that other antidepressants, less cardiotoxic, and safer in overdose
Discontinuation syndrome
flu like symptoms, sleep disturbances, lack of concentration, mood liability
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