History of Medical Technology (Vocabulary Flashcards)

Key vocabulary terms and definitions drawn from the lecture notes on the history and development of medical technology in/global context and its Philippine history.

Medical Technology

A comprehensive branch of the allied health professions dedicated to the study of diverse disciplines such as clinical chemistry, microbiology, parasitology, blood banking, hematology, clinical microscopy, histology, and histopathology. This field utilizes scientific principles to diagnose, monitor, and treat diseases.

Medical Technologist / Clinical Laboratory Technologist

A highly skilled healthcare professional who performs and meticulously analyzes the results of complex scientific tests on various bodily fluids, including blood, urine, and other specimens, utilizing sophisticated procedures and specialized laboratory equipment. Their work is crucial for disease diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.

Four Humors Theory

An ancient medical doctrine, predominantly from Greek and Roman times, which postulated that health and disease were determined by the balance of four fundamental bodily fluids: blood (sanguine), phlegm (phlegmatic), yellow bile (choleric), and black bile (melancholic). Each humor corresponded to combinations of hot/cold and moist/dry physiological characteristics and temperaments.

Uroscopy / Water Casting

A historical medical practice prevalent in earlier centuries where physicians visually examined a patient's urine, looking for abnormalities such as pus, blood, or changes in color, clarity, and sediment, to diagnose various diseases and assess a patient's health status.

Lay Medicine

Medical practices common in the Middle Ages, often performed by non-clergy or non-formally trained individuals, where diagnoses were primarily based on observable symptoms, manual examination of pulse, palpitation (feeling body parts), percussion (tapping), and the visual inspection of excreta (feces, urine) or semen.

Qualitative Assessment

An early diagnostic approach characterized by the measurement and direct observation of characteristics of body fluids, such as color, odor, and consistency, rather than precise numerical quantification. This method provided initial insights into a patient's condition before the advent of more sophisticated analytical techniques.

Hippocrates of Kos

Revered as the 'Father of Medicine,' he introduced a new era of medical thought in ancient Greece by emphasizing observation and rational deduction. His diagnostic methods included examining urine (even tasting for sweetness, indicating diabetes), listening to lung sounds, and authoring the influential Hippocratic Oath, which outlines ethical principles for physicians.

Claudios Galen of Pergamum

An influential Greek physician and philosopher, known as the 'Father of Experimental Physiology.' He conducted extensive animal dissections and experiments, notably describing diabetes as 'diarrhea of urine' and establishing the direct physiological relationship between the amount of fluid ingested and the volume of urine produced.

Rufus of Ephesus

An ancient Greek physician who provided one of the earliest and most accurate descriptions of hematuria, which is the presence of blood in the urine, specifically attributing it to potential kidney failure.

Isaac Judaeus

A prominent Jewish physician and philosopher from the 10th century who developed comprehensive guidelines and systematic protocols for the use of urine examination, known as uroscopy, as a critical diagnostic aid in medieval medicine.

Zacharias Janssen

Credited with inventing the first compound microscope in the late 16th or early 17th century. This pivotal invention dramatically expanded human perception, opening the door to the invisible world of microorganisms and significantly contributing to the understanding of disease causation.

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

Referred to as the 'Father of Microbiology,' this Dutch scientist significantly improved the microscope and was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms, which he called 'animalcules.' His work in the 1660s revolutionized the study of microscopic life for medical purposes.

Edward Jenner

An English physician who pioneered vaccination against smallpox in 1796 by observing that milkmaids exposed to cowpox were immune to smallpox. His groundbreaking work laid the foundation for immunology and the development of modern vaccines.

Marie Francois Xavier Bichat

A French anatomist and physiologist who made significant contributions to the understanding of human anatomy by identifying organs based on their distinct types of tissues. His work in the early 19th century is considered fundamental to the founding of histology, the study of biological tissues.

Agostino Bassi

An Italian entomologist who, through his experiments in 1835, demonstrated that disease could be produced in worms (silkworms) by the injection of organic material, specifically a parasitic fungus. His work was crucial in pioneering bacteriology and the germ theory of disease.

Louis Pasteur

A renowned French microbiologist and chemist who made immense contributions to medical science, including proving the germ theory of disease. In 1857, he developed the first vaccine for rabies, a major breakthrough in preventing infectious diseases.

Gregor Mendel

An Augustinian friar and scientist who, through his meticulous studies on pea plants, enunciated his fundamental laws of inherited characteristics in 1866. His work laid the groundwork for modern genetics.

Joseph Lister

A British surgeon who, in 1870, demonstrated that surgical infections were primarily caused by airborne organisms. His introduction of antiseptic practices, such as sterilizing instruments and using carbolic acid, dramatically reduced mortality rates in surgery.

Robert Koch

A German physician and microbiologist who, in 1877, presented the first definitive pictures and identification of bacilli (specifically, the anthrax bacillus) and later the tubercle bacillus. His work established Koch's Postulates, a crucial set of criteria for proving that a specific microorganism causes a specific disease.

Elie Metchnikoff

A Russian zoologist and Nobel laureate who, in 1886, described phagocytes (cells that engulf foreign particles and debris) in the blood and elucidated their vital role in fighting infection and providing cellular immunity.

Ernst von Bergmann

A German surgeon who significantly advanced surgical antisepsis by introducing steam sterilization for surgical instruments and dressings in 1886. This innovation dramatically improved patient safety and reduced postoperative infections.

Karl Landsteiner

An Austrian physician and immunologist who, in 1902, distinguished the main human blood groups (A, B, AB, and O) through his groundbreaking work on the ABO blood group system. This discovery revolutionized blood transfusions, making them safer and more effective.

August von Wassermann

A German bacteriologist who, in 1906, developed the Wassermann test, one of the first immunologic tests for detecting syphilis. This test was a significant diagnostic tool for many decades.

Howard Ricketts

An American pathologist who, in 1906, discovered a unique group of microorganisms, eventually named 'rickettsiae' after him. These organisms have characteristics that place them between bacteria and viruses and are responsible for diseases like typhus fever.

Hans Fischer

A German organic chemist and Nobel laureate who, in 1926, meticulously worked out the complex chemical structure of hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein in red blood cells. His research provided fundamental insights into its function.

Jonas Salk

An American medical researcher and virologist who, in 1954, developed the inactivated poliomyelitis vaccine (IPV), commonly known as the Salk vaccine. This vaccine proved highly effective in preventing polio, a devastating viral disease.

James Westgard

A prominent clinical chemist who, in 1973, introduced the 'Westgard Rules.' These are a set of widely used statistical quality control rules employed in clinical laboratories to monitor the performance of analytical methods and ensure the accuracy and reliability of test results.

Baruch Samuel Blumberg

An American physician and Nobel laureate who, in 1980, developed the Hepatitis B vaccine. His work, which included identifying the Hepatitis B virus, led to a crucial tool for preventing this serious liver infection.

Kary Mullis

An American biochemist who, in 1985, developed the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technique. PCR revolutionized molecular biology by allowing for the rapid and exponential amplification of specific DNA sequences, essential for countless applications in diagnostics, research, and forensics.

Andre van Steirteghem

A Belgian embryologist who, in 1992, developed intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). This advanced assisted reproductive technology involves injecting a single sperm directly into an egg, significantly improving success rates for couples with male infertility.

James Thomson

An American developmental biologist who, in 1998, successfully derived the first human embryonic stem cell line. This landmark achievement opened new avenues for regenerative medicine and therapeutic research.

William Harvey

An English physician who, through meticulous experimentation including vivisection, ligation (tying off vessels), and perfusion, accurately described the systemic circulation of blood throughout the body. His monumental work, published in 1628, overturned previous theories.

Robert Hooke

An English natural philosopher and architect who, using an early compound microscope, meticulously documented and illustrated the existence of 'cells' in plant tissue (cork) in his 1665 book Micrographia. He coined the term 'cell' for the basic units of life he observed.

Marcello Malpighi

An Italian physician and anatomist, widely considered the 'Father of Histology.' Using the microscope, he made groundbreaking investigations into embryology and the intricate histology (microscopic anatomy) of glands and viscera, discovering capillaries and other microscopic structures.

Frederik Dekkers

A Dutch physician who, in 1694, made the important observation that urine containing protein would form a visible precipitate when boiled with acetic acid. This was an early qualitative test for proteinuria, indicative of kidney disease.

Thomas Willis

An English physician, a pioneer in anatomy, who was the first to distinctly notice and describe the characteristic sweet taste of diabetic urine. This observation provided an early, albeit crude, diagnostic indicator of diabetes mellitus.

Richard Lower

An English physician known for his physiological experiments. In the late 17th century, he was the first to successfully perform a direct transfusion of blood from one animal to another, marking a significant step in the history of transfusion medicine.

William Hewson

An English anatomist who earned the title 'Father of Hematology' due to his extensive studies on blood. He made fundamental discoveries regarding blood coagulation, identifying fibrin and understanding its role in clot formation.

Gabriel Fahrenheit

A German physicist who invented the mercury thermometer in 1714 and developed the Fahrenheit temperature scale, which became widely adopted for measuring temperature, particularly in weather and medical contexts.

John Hill

An English botanist and physician who, in 1770, introduced a practical method for obtaining and preparing specimens from plants and animal tissues for microscopic study, thereby advancing the field of microscopy.

J. W. Tichy

Made early observations in 1774 concerning the sediments found in the urine of febrile (feverish) patients, contributing to rudimentary urinalysis and the understanding of disease indicators.

Matthew Dobson

An English physician who, in 1776, scientifically proved that the sweetness observed in the urine and blood serum of diabetic patients was specifically caused by the presence of sugar, confirming the metabolic nature of diabetes.

Francis Home

A Scottish physician who, in 1780, developed one of the earliest tests for sugar determination in diabetic urine using yeast. This method relied on fermentation and the production of carbon dioxide as an indicator of sugar presence.

Antoine Francois de Fourcroy

A French chemist who, in 1789, discovered cholesterol, a crucial lipid found in animal tissues. His work contributed to the understanding of organic compounds in living organisms.

Johannes Evangelista Purkinje

A Czech anatomist and physiologist who was a pioneer in using the microscope during the 19th century. He described protoplasm (the living contents of a cell) and discovered sudoriferous (sweat) glands, among other significant microscopic findings.

John Snow

A British physician considered one of the fathers of modern epidemiology. In 1854, he famously studied the great cholera outbreak in London and, through meticulous mapping and investigation, identified a contaminated water pump as the source, demonstrating the role of public health measures.

Karl von Vierordt

A German physiologist who, in 1877, developed a method for measuring coagulation time as an objective index of blood coagulation. This was an important early step in assessing blood clotting disorders.

Sir Almroth Edward Wright

A British bacteriologist and immunologist who, in 1877, made significant observations regarding the crucial role of calcium salts in the complex process of blood coagulation, contributing to the understanding of hemostasis.

Paul Ehrlich

A German physician and scientist who, in 1879, developed innovative methods for drying and fixing blood smears for microscopic examination. He also discovered mast cells and created a classification system for white blood cells, fundamentally advancing hematology.

Alexander Fleming

A Scottish bacteriologist who, in 1928, serendipitously discovered penicillin, the first widely effective antibiotic, derived from the fungus Penicillium notatum. His discovery initiated the antibiotic era, dramatically changing the course of infectious disease treatment.

Gerardus Mulder

A Dutch organic chemist who, around 1830, performed some of the earliest detailed chemical analyses of proteins, coining the term 'protein' and recognizing their fundamental importance in living organisms.

Joseph Jackson Lister

A British optical scientist who, in 1830, developed the achromatic microscope, significantly reducing chromatic aberration and greatly improving image quality. He also introduced dark-field microscopy, enhancing the visualization of unstained living specimens.

James Marsh

A British chemist who, in 1836, developed the Marsh test, a highly sensitive and reliable standard test for the detection of arsenic. This forensic method was crucial for toxicology and crime investigation.

Karl von Vierordt

A German physiologist who, in 1852, developed a precise method for performing accurate blood cell counts, known as hemocytometry. This technique was fundamental for quantitative analysis of blood components in clinical diagnostics.

George Gabriel Stokes

An Irish mathematician and physicist who, in 1852, discovered fluorescence, the phenomenon where a substance absorbs light at one wavelength and re-emits it at a longer wavelength. This discovery became vital for various analytical techniques, including microscopy.

William Perrin

A chemist who, in 1852, prepared the first synthetic dye, aniline purple (mauveine). This groundbreaking achievement initiated the synthetic dye industry and had implications for histology stains.

Jules Duboscq

A French instrument maker who, in 1854, developed the first visual colorimeter based on Beer's Law. This instrument allowed for quantitative measurements of substance concentrations by comparing solution colors.

Herman Luer

A German instrument maker credited with inventing the modern glass hypodermic syringe in 1869, featuring a standardized Luer taper fitting. This innovation greatly improved the accuracy and safety of injections and fluid withdrawal.

Oscar Brefeld

A German botanist and mycologist who, in 1872, significantly advanced microbiology by developing the widespread use of gelatin as a solid culture medium for the isolation and study of fungi and bacteria.

William Henry Corfield

A prominent figure in public health in England, who, in 1875, established the first public health laboratory in the country. This marked a formal institutionalization of scientific methods for public health monitoring and disease control.

Max Jaffe

A German biochemist who, in 1886, developed the alkaline picrate method for the quantitative determination of creatinine. This colorimetric assay became a standard method for assessing kidney function in clinical laboratories.

James Dewar

A Scottish chemist and physicist who, in 1892, invented the vacuum flask (Dewar flask), a device designed to maintain the temperature of its contents. This invention was crucial for laboratory work requiring temperature stability and for cryogenic research.

Julius Elster and Hans Friedrich Geitel

German physicists who, in 1893, jointly invented the photoelectric cell. This device converts light energy into electrical energy and was a precursor to modern light sensors used in various analytical instruments.

Theodore Richards

An American chemist and Nobel laureate who, in 1893, invented the nephelometer. This instrument measures the amount of light scattered by suspended particles in a liquid, used for quantitative analysis of turbidity or particulate matter.

Franz Ziehl and Friedrich Nielsen

German physicians who, in 1895, produced their modification of the acid-fast stain. This staining technique is crucial for identifying acid-fast bacilli, particularly Mycobacteria, which cause tuberculosis and leprosy.

Charles Purdy

An American physician who, in 1896, published 'Practical Urinalysis and Urinary Diagnosis.' This seminal work provided comprehensive guidance on the clinical interpretation of urine findings, significantly standardizing urinalysis practices.

Ferdinand Widal

A French physician and bacteriologist who, in 1896, developed the Widal agglutination test for the identification of the typhoid bacillus (Salmonella Typhi). This serological test became a key diagnostic tool for typhoid fever.

Christian Bohr

A Danish physician and physiologist who, in 1902, discovered the 'Bohr effect,' describing the reciprocal relationship between the pH of blood and the oxygen-binding affinity of hemoglobin. This explains how hemoglobin releases oxygen more readily in acidic conditions (e.g., in active tissues).

Martinus Beijerinck

A Dutch microbiologist and botanist who, in 1902, successfully obtained the first pure culture of the sulfur-oxidizing bacterium. His work demonstrated the importance of these bacteria in biogeochemical cycles and pioneering microbiological techniques.

H.J. Bechtold

Credited with the discovery of immunodiffusion in 1905. This technique involves the diffusion of antigens and antibodies through a gel medium, forming visible precipitate lines, used for qualitative and semi-quantitative analysis of immune reactions.

Arthur Sanford and James Todd

Authored and published the first edition of 'Diagnosis by Laboratory Methods' in 1908. This influential textbook became a cornerstone for standardization and education in clinical laboratory science.

Oskar Heimstadt

Invented the fluorescence microscope in 1911. This specialized microscope uses fluorochromes to label specific structures, allowing for higher contrast and sensitivity in visualizing cells and tissues.

Philip Adolf Kober

An American chemist who, in 1916, developed the colorimeter-nephelometer. This combined instrument allowed for both colorimetric and nephelometric measurements, providing versatile analytical capabilities for various substances in solution.

Francis William Aston

A British chemist and physicist and Nobel laureate who, in 1919, developed the mass spectrograph. This instrument separated ions based on their mass-to-charge ratio, leading to the discovery of isotopes and advancing analytical chemistry.

Arne Tiselius

A Swedish biochemist and Nobel laureate who, in 1926, developed the moving boundary electrophoresis of proteins. This method allowed for the separation and analysis of different protein components in a mixture based on their charge and size, crucial for protein biochemistry.

Theodore Svedberg

A Swedish chemist and Nobel laureate who determined the precise molecular weight of hemoglobin by pioneering the use of ultracentrifugation, a technique that spins samples at extremely high speeds to separate molecules based on their mass.

George Nicholas Papanicolaou

A Greek physician who, in the mid-20th century, famously reported the ability to recover malignant (cancer) cells in vaginal smears. This led to the development of the 'Pap smear,' a widely used and highly effective screening test for cervical cancer.

Otto Folin

A Swedish-American biochemist who introduced the innovative use of a light filter in colorimetry. This enhancement improved the accuracy and specificity of colorimetric assays by allowing only specific wavelengths of light to pass through the sample.

R. Gabreus

Developed the erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) as a simple but effective index of disease severity and inflammation. The ESR measures how quickly red blood cells settle in a test tube over a period of time.

H.D. Kay

Developed the first clinical laboratory method for measuring alkaline phosphatase activity. This biochemical assay, marking the beginning of Clinical Enzymology, became essential for diagnosing bone and liver diseases.

Ian Cherry and Lathan Crandall

Developed the first widely adopted clinical laboratory method for measuring serum lipase activity. This enzymatic assay is crucial for diagnosing pancreatic diseases, particularly acute pancreatitis.

Michael Somogyi

A Hungarian-American biochemist who developed two major clinical laboratory methods for determining serum and urine amylase activity. These assays are fundamental for diagnosing pancreatic disorders.

Alexander Gutman

Developed one of the first reliable assays for acid phosphatase activity. This enzyme test was historically significant, particularly as a tumor marker for prostate cancer.

Edward Joseph Conway and Robert Cooke

Developed the first clinical laboratory method for measuring ammonia levels. This assay is important for diagnosing liver failure and metabolic disorders that lead to hyperammonemia.

S. Borgstrom

Developed the whole blood clotting time test. This simple test measures the time it takes for a blood sample to clot and was an early method to assess overall coagulation function.

Rosalyn Yalow and Solomon Berson

Developed radioimmunoassay (RIA). This highly sensitive technique uses radioactively labeled antibodies and antigens to measure tiny amounts of substances in biological fluids, revolutionizing endocrinology and clinical diagnostics.

Miroslav Poulik

Invented immunoelectrophoresis. This advanced laboratory technique combines electrophoresis (separation by charge) with immunodiffusion (reaction with antibodies) to identify and characterize proteins in complex mixtures, particularly in serum.

Alan Wai Sh

Developed the atomic absorption spectrometer, an analytical instrument that measures the concentration of specific metal elements in a sample. This technology is widely used in clinical laboratories for measuring electrolytes and toxic metals.

Felix Wroblewski and John LaDue

Developed the clinical laboratory methods for measuring serum lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activities. These enzyme assays are vital for diagnosing liver damage, heart conditions, and other tissue injuries.

Arthur Karmen

Developed the clinical method for measuring aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activity in serum. This enzyme assay is widely used in conjunction with ALT to diagnose and monitor liver diseases and myocardial infarction.

Severo Ochoa

A Spanish-American physician and biochemist and Nobel laureate who successfully synthesized ribonucleic acid (RNA) in vitro. This groundbreaking achievement provided crucial insights into genetic information transfer and molecular biology.

Emile van Handel and Don Zilversmit

Developed a direct chemical method for the accurate determination of triglycerides, a type of fat in the blood. This assay became a standard in clinical laboratories for assessing lipid profiles and cardiovascular risk.

M.C. Yank

Introduced Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) as an important serum tumor marker. PSA testing became a widely used tool for screening and monitoring prostate cancer.

David Colcher

Discovered CA-72 (carbohydrate antigen 72), a significant serum tumor marker primarily associated with colorectal cancer, in 1980. It is also used in monitoring other gastrointestinal cancers.

Hilary Koprowski and Robert Bast Jr.

Independently or collaboratively, discovered two important tumor markers in 1981: CA 19-9 (carbohydrate antigen 19-9) for pancreatic cancer and CA-125 (cancer antigen 125) for ovarian cancer. These markers are used for monitoring disease progression and treatment response.

L. Lindholm

Discovered CA-50 (carbohydrate antigen 50), another distinct colorectal cancer marker, in 1983. It is used in conjunction with other markers for improved diagnostic and monitoring accuracy.

R. Tobias

Discovered CA 15-3 (cancer antigen 15-3), an important breast cancer marker, in 1985. It is primarily used for monitoring the recurrence and treatment response of advanced breast cancer.

Kurt Bray

Discovered CA 549 (cancer antigen 549), another serum tumor marker, in 1987, which is specifically associated with breast cancer. It is used for monitoring breast cancer progression, especially in metastatic cases.

S. Fukuta

Discovered CA 195 (carbohydrate antigen 195), a specific colorectal cancer marker, in 1987. This marker aids in the diagnosis and surveillance of colorectal malignancies.

Spirometer

An essential medical instrument invented by John Hutchinson. It is used to measure the vital capacity of the lungs, as well as other lung volumes and flow rates, providing critical information for diagnosing and monitoring respiratory conditions like asthma and COPD.