Unit 4 Ap psych

Attribution Theory

Explores how we explain behavior, both our own and others'. It covers internal and external attributions, explanatory styles, and common biases that affect our judgments.

Dispositional Attributions

Connect behavior to internal qualities like intelligence or personality

Situational Attributions

Link behavior to external circumstances the person experiences.

Explanatory Style

A person's predictable pattern of attributions for good and bad events in their own life and others' lives

Optimistic Explanatory Style

Attributes good events to internal, stable, global causes and bad events to external, unstable, specific causes

Pessimistic Explanatory Style

Attributes good events to external, unstable, specific causes and bad events to internal, stable, global causes

Actor-Observer Bias

People tend to attribute their own behavior to situational factors, but attribute others' behavior to dispositional factors

Fundamental Attribution Error

Overestimating the influence of dispositional factors and underestimating the influence of situational factors when explaining others' behavior

Self-Serving Bias

Tendency to attribute successes to internal factors and failures to external factors to maintain self-esteem

Locus of Control

The extent to which people believe they have control over events in their lives

Internal Locus of Control

Belief that one's own actions determine outcomes

External Locus of Control

Belief that outside forces (luck, fate, powerful others) determine outcomes

Mere Exposure Effect

Phenomenon where people tend to like a stimulus more simply because they've been exposed to it repeatedly over time.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

When people's beliefs or perceptions about themselves or others lead them to behave in ways that elicit confirming behaviors from others

Social Comparison

Evaluating oneself based on comparisons to others in society or social circles

Upward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to someone seen as better off, which can inspire self-improvement but may also threaten self-esteem

Downward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to someone seen as worse off, which can boost self-esteem but may hinder motivation to improve

Relative Deprivation

Perception of being deprived of something one feels entitled to, often based on social comparisons

Stereotypes

Oversimplified, generalized beliefs about a particular group of people

Implicit Attitudes

Unconscious or unacknowledged evaluations individuals hold about others. May not align with explicitly stated beliefs or values

Just-World Phenomenon

Assumes people get what they deserve and deserve what they get

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

Perceives members of other groups as more similar to each other than members of one's own group

In-Group Bias

Favors one's own group over others

Ethnocentrism

Judges other cultures based on the standards of one's own culture

Belief Perseverance

The tendency to cling to a belief even when presented with contradictory evidence

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out and interpret information in a way that confirms pre-existing beliefs

Cognitive Dissonance

The mental discomfort experienced when actions and attitudes are inconsistent

Social Institutions

Organized structures and norms that govern behaviors and meet societal needs

Social Norms

Established rules that dictate expected behaviors in specific social contexts

Role Theory

Suggests that social roles come with specific expectations that influence individual behavior

Conformity

Adjusting behaviors or beliefs to align with group norms

Obedience

Complying with orders or directions from authority figures

Socialization

Process of learning and internalizing societal norms, values, and behaviors, largely influenced by institutions

Primary Socialization

Early socialization in the family setting

Secondary Socialization

Learning appropriate behavior in smaller groups and institutions beyond the family

Groupthink

Desire for harmony leads to consensus-seeking behavior, often at the expense of critical thinking

Group Polarization

Tendency for group discussion to strengthen the prevailing opinion

Social Loafing

Reduced effort by individuals when working in a group compared to working alone

Id

Primitive desires and instincts, seeking immediate gratification

Ego

Rational part that mediates between id and reality

Superego

Internalized moral standards and values

Repression

Unconscious exclusion of distressing thoughts

Denial

Refusal to accept reality

Projection

Attributing one’s own undesirable feelings to others

Carl Jung

Introduced the concepts of collective unconscious and archetypes

Alfred Adler

Emphasized the importance of social interest and feelings of inferiority

Karen Horney

Challenged Freud’s theories on female psychology and emphasized cultural influences

Carl Rogers

Emphasized self-concept, the importance of unconditional positive regard, and conditions of worth

Abraham Maslow

Developed the hierarchy of needs, culminating in self-actualization as the highest human potential

Humanism

Stresses free will, self-efficacy, and the inherent goodness of people

Reciprocal Determinism

Suggests an interaction between individual, behavior, and environment

Observational Learning

Learning by observing others; highlights the role of modeling

Self-Efficacy

Belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific situations

Internal Locus of Control

Belief that one controls their own fate

External Locus of Control

Belief that outside forces control outcomes

Openness

Creativity and willingness to try new things

Conscientiousness

Organization and dependability

Extraversion

Sociability and enthusiasm

Agreeableness

Compassion and cooperativeness

Neuroticism

Emotional instability and negative emotions

Drive-Reduction Theory

Motivation arises from biological needs that create internal states of tension (drives)

Incentive Theory

Behavior is directed by external rewards and punishments

Arousal Theory

People are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal for peak performance

Intrinsic Motivation

Driven by internal satisfaction and personal interest

Extrinsic Motivation

Driven by external rewards or avoidance of punishment

Physiological Arousal

Body responses like heart rate, sweating, and adrenaline

Expressive Behaviors

Visible actions such as facial expressions and gestures

Conscious Experience

Subjective feelings and thoughts associated with an emotion

Facial-Feedback Hypothesis

Facial expressions influence emotional experience

Broaden-and-Build Theory

Positive emotions broaden awareness and encourage new thoughts and actions. Negative emotions narrow awareness and focus attention on immediate threats or challenges

Positive Emotions (Benefits)

Enhance mental and physical well-being. Boost creativity and problem-solving. Strengthen social connections and relationships

Negative Emotions (Detriments)

Increase stress and anxiety. Impair decision-making and cognitive function. Strain interpersonal relationships

Display Rules

Socially learned norms or rules for expressing emotions in specific situations