Unit 0 Psychological Perspectives

What does the biological perspective focus on?

How the brain, body, and chemicals shape our thoughts, feelings, and actions

Give an example question for the biological perspective

How do messages travel through the body to create emotions?

What does the evolutionary perspective examine?

How behaviors and mental processes have evolved for survival and adaptation

Give an example question for the evolutionary perspective

How has evolution influenced our fears and attractions?

What does the psychodynamic perspective emphasize?

How unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and thoughts

Give an example question for the psychodynamic perspective

What hidden desires motivate our choices?

What does the behavioral perspective study?

How we learn through rewards, punishments, and observation

Give an example question for the behavioral perspective

How do we develop phobias?

What does the cognitive perspective focus on?

How we process information, think, reason, and solve problems

Give an example question for the cognitive perspective

How does our memory work?

What does the humanistic perspective emphasize?

Personal growth, potential, and self-image affect behavior

Give an example question for the humanistic perspective

How can we achieve our fullest potential?

What does the social-cultural perspective examine?

How social interactions and cultural norms shape behavior and thinking

Give an example question for the social-cultural perspective

How do different cultures view happiness?

What does a biological psychologist study?

The link between the mind and body

What does a developmental psychologist study?

How behavior and mental processes change throughout life

What does a cognitive psychologist focus on?

How we perceive, think, and problem-solve

What does a personality psychologist investigate?

Our unique and enduring traits

What does a social psychologist explore?

How people interact and influence each other

What does a psychometric psychologist study?

The measurement of psychological qualities

What does an industrial-organizational psychologist do?

Apply psychology to the workplace to boost productivity and well-being

What does an educational psychologist specialize in?

How people learn and how to improve teaching methods

What does a counseling psychologist do?

Help individuals cope with challenges in life (school, career, relationships)

What does a clinical psychologist do?

Assess, diagnose, and treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders

How do psychiatrists differ from psychologists?

They are medical doctors who can prescribe medication and also use psychotherapy

What does positive psychology study?

Factors that contribute to happiness, well-being, and optimal human functioning

What is the APA?

The American Psychological Association, the leading professional organization for U.S. psychologists

What is hindsight bias?

The tendency to believe, after an event, that we knew it would happen all along

What is overconfidence?

Overestimating how much we know

What is pseudoscience?

Beliefs or practices that appear scientific but lack supporting evidence

What is confirmation bias?

Seeking information that supports our existing beliefs and ignoring contradictory evidence

Define curiosity in the scientific mindset

A passion for exploring and understanding the world

Define skepticism in the scientific mindset

Questioning claims and demanding evidence

Define humility in the scientific mindset

Being open to being wrong and changing views based on new data

What is critical thinking?

Carefully evaluating information and arguments rather than accepting them blindly

What is a theory in psychology?

A well-tested explanation organizing observations and predicting behaviors or events

What is a hypothesis?

A testable prediction derived from a theory

What is an operational definition?

A precise description of how a variable is measured or manipulated

What is research/observation in the scientific method?

Conducting studies and gathering data to test a hypothesis

What is the APA Code of Ethics?

The rules psychologists follow to ensure ethical research practices

What is an Institutional Review Board (IRB)?

A group that reviews research proposals to ensure ethical treatment of participants

What is informed consent?

Informing participants about a study’s risks and benefits before they agree to participate

What special consent is required for minors?

Parental/guardian permission and assent from the child

What is limited deception?

Misleading participants only when necessary and debriefing afterward

What is protection from harm?

Minimizing discomfort or risk and preventing long-term negative effects

What is the right to withdraw?

The participant’s ability to leave a study at any time

What is confidentiality in research?

Keeping participants’ personal information private

What is debriefing?

Explaining the study’s purpose and answers to participants after it ends

Why use animals in research?

To gain information not possible or ethical with human participants

What is humane treatment of animal subjects?

Avoiding unnecessary pain and justifying any harm by potential benefits

What are animal care guidelines?

Strict rules for the welfare of animals in research settings

What is a positive correlation?

When two variables increase or decrease together

What is a negative correlation?

When one variable increases as the other decreases

What is a scatterplot?

A graph showing the relationship between two variables

What is a correlation coefficient?

A number indicating the strength and direction of a correlation (+1 to –1)

Does correlation prove causation?

No—correlation does not prove one variable causes another

What is naturalistic observation?

Recording behavior in its natural setting

Name a strength of naturalistic observation

It provides realistic data

Name a weakness of naturalistic observation

Observer bias and participants may alter behavior

What is a case study?

In-depth investigation of a single person or situation

Name a strength of case studies

Useful for studying rare or complex cases

Name a weakness of case studies

Findings may not generalize to others

What is a survey?

Questionnaires or interviews collecting self-reported data

Name a strength of surveys

Efficient for gathering large amounts of data

Name a weakness of surveys

Subject to biased or dishonest responses

What is a quasi-experiment?

Study of variables without random assignment

Name a strength of quasi-experiments

Allows study of variables that can’t be ethically manipulated

Name a weakness of quasi-experiments

Weaker ability to establish cause and effect

What is a random sample?

Everyone in the population has an equal chance of selection

What is a stratified sample?

Population divided into subgroups and random samples taken from each

Why does random sampling matter?

It allows generalization of results to the larger population

What is random assignment?

Assigning participants to groups by chance to minimize preexisting differences

What is the experimental group?

The group receiving the treatment or intervention

What is the control group?

The group not receiving the treatment, used for comparison

What is the independent variable (IV)?

The factor the researcher manipulates (the “cause”)

What is the dependent variable (DV)?

The outcome that may change in response to the IV (the “effect”)

What is a placebo?

A fake treatment given to control for participants’ expectations

What is the null hypothesis?

The assumption that there is no real difference between groups

What is a single-blind study?

Participants do not know which group they are in

What is a double-blind study?

Both participants and researchers are unaware of group assignments

What are confounding variables?

Uncontrolled factors that might influence the dependent variable

What are descriptive statistics?

Numbers that summarize and describe data characteristics

What is the mean?

The average: sum of scores divided by number of scores

What is the median?

The middle score when data are ordered

What is the mode?

The most frequently occurring score

When is the mean preferred?

For symmetrically distributed data without outliers

When is the median preferred?

For skewed data where outliers distort the mean

When is the mode preferred?

For nominal (categorical) data

What is a longitudinal study?

Follows the same group over an extended time

What is a cross-sectional study?

Compares different groups at a single point in time

What is statistical significance?

The likelihood that results are due to the IV rather than chance

What is the 5% rule?

Results are significant if p < .05 (less than 5% probability of chance)

What is the range?

The difference between the highest and lowest scores

What is standard deviation?

The average distance of each score from the mean

What is a normal distribution?

A symmetrical bell curve where mean=median=mode

What percent falls within one SD in a normal curve?

About 68%

What percent falls within two SDs?

About 95%

What is a skewed distribution?

Data unevenly distributed with a tail on one side

What is positive skew?

A tail on the right (high-value outliers)

What is negative skew?

A tail on the left (low-value outliers)