Topic 9: Theories of Writing Development

What is writing?

An expressive form of language used to communicate thoughts, ideas, feelings and experiences.

When does writing development begin?

Before children can hold a pencil, through oral language, drawing, play and mark-making.

Why is writing considered complex?

It involves cognitive, physical, social, cultural and language processes.

What is emergent literacy theory?

The view that literacy develops gradually from birth through meaningful experiences with language and print.

Who are key theorists connected to emergent literacy?

Marie Clay and Elizabeth Sulzby.

How are reading and writing connected?

They develop together and share foundations in oral language, print knowledge and meaning-making.

What can children’s early writing errors reveal?

Their current ideas and understanding about how writing works.

How should educators respond to early writing attempts?

Value the child’s intended meaning instead of immediately correcting every error.

What are concepts of print?

Understandings about how printed language is organised and used.

What does 'print carries meaning' mean?

Written marks and symbols communicate a message.

What is directionality?

Understanding that English is read and written from left to right and top to bottom.

What is one-to-one correspondence?

Understanding that each spoken word corresponds with a written word.

What other concepts of print do children develop?

Letters form words, spaces separate words and punctuation organises meaning.

What physical skills support early writing?

Core, shoulder, arm, hand and finger strength and coordination.

What activities develop the physical foundations for writing?

Tummy time, crawling, painting, playdough, tweezers, chalk and drawing on vertical surfaces.

What is oral composition?

Forming and organising ideas through speech before expressing them in writing.

What is the drawing and scribbling stage?

The child makes marks that communicate an intended message.

What are letter-like forms?

Shapes that resemble letters and show that the child knows writing looks different from drawing.

What are random letters?

Recognisable letters that do not yet match the sounds in the child’s intended message.

What is invented spelling?

Using knowledge of sounds to choose letters, even when the spelling is not conventional.

What is transitional spelling?

Combining phonics and visual memory to produce increasingly conventional spelling.

What is conventional writing?

Writing that uses standard spelling, spacing, punctuation and text organisation.

Are the stages of emergent writing fixed and linear?

No. Children may move backwards and forwards depending on the task and their experience.

What is cognitive theory of writing?

The view that writing is a mental problem-solving process.

What writing processes are emphasised in cognitive theory?

Planning, drafting, evaluating and revising.

How does working memory affect beginning writers?

Handwriting and spelling may use so much mental capacity that less remains for planning and improving ideas.

What is sociocognitive theory?

A theory that combines the mental and social processes involved in writing.

What is sociocultural theory?

The view that writing develops through interaction with people, language, culture and the environment.

Who is the main theorist connected to sociocultural theory?

Lev Vygotsky.

What is the Zone of Proximal Development?

The gap between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with support.

What is a more knowledgeable other?

A teacher, peer or other person who provides support to help a learner progress.

What is scaffolding?

Temporary and responsive support that helps a child complete a task and become more independent.

What are examples of writing scaffolds?

Modelling, think-alouds, oral rehearsal, visual prompts, tracing, sentence starters and graphic organisers.

Why is talk important before writing?

It helps children organise, rehearse and clarify their ideas.

What is genre theory?

The view that different text types have particular purposes, structures and language features.

What are examples of genres?

Narratives, reports, procedures, explanations and persuasive texts.

What is a danger of teaching genres as fixed formulas?

Writing may become a rigid checklist instead of meaningful communication.

What is the gradual release of responsibility?

A flexible movement from modelled to shared, guided and independent writing.

Is gradual release always a one-way process?

No. Teachers can return to modelling or shared writing when children need support.

What is modelled writing?

The teacher writes while children observe the writing process.

What is a think-aloud?

The teacher says their writing decisions aloud to make their thinking visible.

What can teachers demonstrate through modelled writing?

Planning, vocabulary, spelling, punctuation, purpose, audience, editing and revision.

Why should teachers model mistakes and corrections?

To show that writing does not need to be perfect immediately and can be improved.

What is shared or joint writing?

The teacher and children work together to compose a text.

What does the teacher do during shared writing?

Scribes, questions, prompts, paraphrases and discusses language choices.

What is metalanguage?

Language used to discuss language, such as noun, verb, adjective, sentence and conjunction.

What is Halliday’s functional model?

A model explaining how language communicates ideas, builds relationships and organises meaning.

What is Halliday’s ideational function?

Using language to communicate ideas, experiences and concepts.

What is Halliday’s interpersonal function?

Using language to create relationships and interact with an audience.

What is Halliday’s textual function?

Organising ideas into a clear and recognisable text.

What is the process approach to writing?

An approach that treats children as authors and supports planning, drafting, revising, proofreading and publishing.

How does the teacher support the process approach?

Through mini-lessons, conferences, discussion, observation, feedback and model texts.

What is composition?

Generating and organising ideas while considering language, purpose and audience.

What is transcription?

The technical skills of spelling, punctuation, handwriting, typing and layout.

Why must composition and transcription be balanced?

Children need technical skills, but too much attention to correctness can distract from meaning.

What is writing as a product?

The completed text that can be read, shared or assessed.

What is writing as a process?

The activity of planning, composing, reviewing and improving a text.

What is writing as design?

Viewing writers as designers who combine language, structure, images and layout to achieve a purpose.

What is multimodal writing?

Writing that combines words with images, drawing, sound, drama, layout or digital tools.

What is authentic writing?

Writing created for a meaningful purpose and real or imagined audience.

What are examples of authentic writing?

Lists, signs, menus, letters, class books, posters, comics and digital stories.

What is a mentor text?

A quality text used to show children techniques they can try in their own writing.

What is child agency in writing?

Children having meaningful choices and influence over their writing.

How can teachers support agency?

Allow choices about topics, materials, formats, purposes and audiences.

What is writer identity?

How a person views themselves and their abilities as a writer.

What is writing self-efficacy?

A person’s belief that they are capable of writing successfully.

How can teachers strengthen children’s writer identities?

Value their ideas, celebrate progress, model writing and provide meaningful choices.

How can a teacher’s writer identity affect students?

The teacher’s confidence and attitude can influence how motivated and capable children feel.

What is Cox’s personal growth model?

English develops imagination, identity, self-expression and personal understanding.

What is Cox’s cross-curricular model?

Language and literacy support learning across all curriculum areas.

What is Cox’s adult needs model?

English develops communication skills required for life beyond school.

What is Cox’s cultural heritage model?

English introduces learners to significant literature and cultural works.

What is Cox’s cultural analysis model?

English helps learners critically examine texts, society, culture and viewpoints.

What is a literacy paradigm?

A broad way of understanding and approaching literacy teaching.

What is the didactic literacy paradigm?

Teacher-led, explicit instruction in correct forms, rules and skills.

What is the authentic literacy paradigm?

Learning through meaningful activities connected to children’s interests and experiences.

What is the functional literacy paradigm?

Examining how language changes according to its purpose, audience and context.

What is the critical literacy paradigm?

Questioning how texts represent ideas, people, viewpoints and power.

What questions support critical literacy?

Who created the text, why was it created, whose viewpoint is included and whose is missing?

What is the overall principle of effective writing teaching?

Combine explicit instruction, observation, social interaction, meaningful purposes, scaffolding and child agency.