anatomy final previous lectures

Anatomy

Form or structure of the body; the physical relationships and shapes of body parts.

Physiology

Function of the body; how body parts work and carry out life-sustaining activities. :contentReference[oaicite:0]{index=0}

Biological levels of organization

Order of complexity: molecules/chemicals → cells → tissues → organs → organ systems → organism. :contentReference[oaicite:1]{index=1}

Structure-function relationship

Principle that the shape/structure of a body part determines its function; examples include bone shape for leverage and alveolar thinness for gas exchange. :contentReference[oaicite:2]{index=2}

11 organ systems (list)

Integumentary; Skeletal; Muscular; Nervous; Circulatory; Endocrine; Lymphatic; Digestive; Respiratory; Urinary; Reproductive. :contentReference[oaicite:3]{index=3}

Integumentary main functions

Protection, thermoregulation, sensation, vitamin D production, water balance, blood reservoir, excretion. :contentReference[oaicite:4]{index=4}

Skeletal main functions

Support, protection of organs, movement leverage, blood cell formation (hematopoiesis), mineral (calcium) storage. :contentReference[oaicite:5]{index=5}

Muscular main functions

Generate movement, maintain posture, stabilize joints, produce heat. :contentReference[oaicite:6]{index=6}

Nervous main functions

Rapid communication and control; processing sensory input and directing responses. :contentReference[oaicite:7]{index=7}

Circulatory main functions

Transport nutrients, gases, wastes, hormones; thermoregulation. :contentReference[oaicite:8]{index=8}

Endocrine main functions

Slow, long-duration communication using hormones to regulate metabolism, growth, reproduction. :contentReference[oaicite:9]{index=9}

Lymphatic main functions

Immune defense, return interstitial fluid to blood, absorb dietary fats. :contentReference[oaicite:10]{index=10}

Digestive main functions

Break down and absorb nutrients; waste elimination. :contentReference[oaicite:11]{index=11}

Respiratory main functions

Gas exchange (O₂ uptake, CO₂ removal). :contentReference[oaicite:12]{index=12}

Urinary main functions

Filter blood to remove wastes, regulate water/electrolyte and acid-base balance. :contentReference[oaicite:13]{index=13}

Reproductive main functions

Produce sex cells and hormones; enable reproduction. :contentReference[oaicite:14]{index=14}

Homeostasis

role

Negative feedback

A response that amplifies the original stimulus (example: childbirth/oxytocin → more stretch → more oxytocin).

Positive feedback

A response that amplifies the original stimulus (example: childbirth/oxytocin → more stretch → more oxytocin).

Feedback loop components

Sensor (receptor) → Control center → Effector → Response. Example: pulse oximeter senses O₂ → ventilator adjustment (effector) → increased O₂. :contentReference[oaicite:18]{index=18}

Osmosis

Pressure generated by water movement toward the area of higher solute concentration; drives osmosis.

Osmotic pressure

the pressure needed to stop the flow of solvent (like water) across a semipermeable membrane from a lower to a higher solute concentration, driven by osmosis

Hypotonic solution

Solution with lower solute concentration than the cell; water enters cell → swelling.

Isotonic solution

Solution with equal solute concentration to the cell; no net water movement. :contentReference[oaicite:22]{index=22}

Hypertonic solution

More solute outside of cell, water leaves cell

Ionotropic receptor

Membrane receptor that opens an ion channel when ligand binds; fast synaptic responses (e.g., NMJ AChR). :contentReference[oaicite:24]{index=24}

Metabotropic receptor

Membrane receptor that activates intracellular G-proteins and second-messenger cascades; slower, modulatory effects. :contentReference[oaicite:25]{index=25}

Compare ionotropic vs metabotropic

Fast vs slow; direct ion flux vs second-messenger signaling; immediate synaptic transmission vs modulatory/longer-lasting effects.

Diffusion

the net movement of particles (atoms, ions, molecules) from a higher concentration area to a lower concentration area,

Active transport

Approximately 24-hour biological cycles synchronized by environmental cues (light), regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

Compare diffusion vs active transport

Diffusion = passive down gradient; active transport = energy-dependent up gradient enabling concentration differences (e.g., Na/K pump). :contentReference[oaicite:29]{index=29}

Phospholipid bilayer organization

Phospholipids form a bilayer: hydrophilic heads face ECF/ICF, hydrophobic tails face inward; membrane proteins embedded create fluid mosaic. :contentReference[oaicite:30]{index=30}

Central functions of a cell

Metabolism, energy production, synthesis of macromolecules, cell communication, transport, reproduction. :contentReference[oaicite:31]{index=31}

General composition of tissues

Tissues = cells + extracellular matrix (fibers + ground substance); ECM provides structure and biochemical support. :contentReference[oaicite:32]{index=32}

Four primary tissue types

Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nervous. :contentReference[oaicite:33]{index=33}

Major functions of connective tissue

Enclose/separate tissues, connect tissues (tendons), support & movement (cartilage), energy/mineral storage (adipose/bone), cushioning/insulation, transport (blood), protection (immune cells). :contentReference[oaicite:34]{index=34}

CT in 1st-degree burn

1st degree: damage limited to epidermis; basement membrane intact; signs = pain, redness, swelling. :contentReference[oaicite:35]{index=35}

CT in 2nd-degree burn

2nd degree: destroys basement membrane and reaches dermis; blistering, pain, redness, swelling. :contentReference[oaicite:36]{index=36}

CT in 3rd-degree burn

3rd degree: destroys adipose barrier and deeper CT; high risk of sepsis, edema, organ failure, hypovolemic shock, death.

CT in melanoma

Depth of invasion through CT layers correlates with survival; deeper invasion → much lower 5-year survival rates. :contentReference[oaicite:38]{index=38}

Connective tissue classes

CT proper (loose/dense), Supportive (cartilage, bone), Fluid (blood, lymph). Key fibers: collagen (strength), reticular (branched network), elastic (stretch/return). Ground substance = gel of proteoglycans/hyaluronic acid.

General structure/function of epithelial tissue

Tightly packed cells, minimal ECM, apical & basal polarity, avascular, high regenerative capacity; functions: protection, absorption, secretion, filtration. Contrast endocrine (ductless, secrete hormones) vs exocrine (ducts).

Cardinal signs of inflammation

Redness (rubor), heat (calor), swelling (tumor), pain (dolor), loss of function. :contentReference[oaicite:41]{index=41}

Stages of acute inflammation

1) Injury & mediator release 2) Vasodilation 3) Increased vascular permeability 4) Leukocyte recruitment 5) Resolution/repair. :contentReference[oaicite:42]{index=42}

General functions of integumentary system

Barrier/protection, thermoregulation (sweat, vasodilation/vasoconstriction), sensation, vitamin D synthesis, social/appearance roles. :contentReference[oaicite:43]{index=43}

Dermal layers

structure/func

Epidermal layers (deep → superficial)

Stratum basale (keratinocyte stem cells, melanocytes) → Stratum spinosum (keratin production) → Stratum granulosum (cells die) → Stratum lucidum (only in thick skin) → Stratum corneum (multiple dead keratinized layers). Cells migrate & are shed every ~40–56 days. :contentReference[oaicite:45]{index=45}

Factors affecting skin color

Melanin production by melanocytes (amount & type), carotene, hemoglobin, UV exposure, genetics; melanin produced in stratum basale. :contentReference[oaicite:46]{index=46}

Drug injection absorption rates

IV = fastest; Intramuscular = fast; Subcutaneous = slower; Transdermal/topical = slowest. (Slides list relative rates.) :contentReference[oaicite:47]{index=47}

SAD & lightbox therapy

Skin/retinal light exposure influences hypothalamic circuits and melatonin/cortisol rhythms; lightbox therapy restores circadian signaling and improves mood by normalizing retinal→SCN→pineal pathways.

Pressure ulcers causes

Prolonged pressure → impaired perfusion → tissue hypoxia → cell death; risk factors: immobility, poor nutrition, moisture. :contentReference[oaicite:49]{index=49}

Pressure ulcer prevention

Regular repositioning, pressure-relief support surfaces, adequate nutrition, skin hygiene. :contentReference[oaicite:50]{index=50}

Pressure ulcer treatment

Relieve pressure, improve perfusion, wound care, debridement if needed, infection control. :contentReference[oaicite:51]{index=51}

Vitamin D & bone homeostasis

UV → skin produces vitamin D precursor → liver & kidney activate → increases intestinal Ca²⁺ absorption → supports bone mineralization. :contentReference[oaicite:52]{index=52}

PTH role

Increases blood Ca²⁺ by stimulating osteoclast-mediated bone resorption, increasing renal Ca²⁺ reabsorption, and promoting activation of vitamin D. :contentReference[oaicite:53]{index=53}

Calcitonin role

Decreases blood Ca²⁺ by inhibiting osteoclasts (slide says lowers blood calcium). :contentReference[oaicite:54]{index=54}

Skeletal system functions

Support, protection of organs, movement, mineral storage, hematopoiesis. :contentReference[oaicite:55]{index=55}

Bone cells functions

Osteoblasts = build bone (matrix deposition); Osteocytes = maintain bone; Osteoclasts = resorb bone; Osteoprogenitors = stem cells for bone. :contentReference[oaicite:56]{index=56}

Three classes of joints

Fibrous = little/no movement (sutures); Cartilaginous = slight movement (pubic symphysis, ribs); Synovial = freely movable with synovial cavity (hinge, ball-and-socket, pivot, saddle, plane, ellipsoid). :contentReference[oaicite:57]{index=57}

Functions of muscular system

Produce movement, maintain posture, stabilize joints, produce heat, assist circulation and respiration. :contentReference[oaicite:58]{index=58}

Skeletal muscle characteristics

Voluntary, striated, multinucleated, attached to bones; rapid contractions. :contentReference[oaicite:59]{index=59}

Cardiac muscle characteristics

Striated, involuntary, branched fibers, intercalated discs supporting synchronized contraction. :contentReference[oaicite:60]{index=60}

Smooth muscle characteristics

Non-striated, involuntary, spindle-shaped, slow rhythmic contractions, found in viscera and vessel walls. :contentReference[oaicite:61]{index=61}

Skeletal muscle organization

Whole muscle → fascicle → muscle fiber (cell) → myofibril → sarcomere → myofilaments (actin thin, myosin thick).

Sliding filament model

Myosin heads bind actin, perform power stroke using ATP → actin slides toward M-line → sarcomere shortens → muscle contracts. Cross-bridge cycle steps: myosin high-energy state, Ca²⁺ exposes actin, power stroke, ATP binds to detach, ATP hydrolysis resets head. :contentReference[oaicite:63]{index=63}

Sarcomere myofilament diagram

Thin filament = F-actin (G-actin units) + tropomyosin + troponin; Thick filament = myosin with heads that bind actin and hydrolyze ATP. Z-disks mark sarcomere boundaries.

Neuromuscular junction structure

Axon terminal with synaptic vesicles (ACh), synaptic cleft, motor end plate with nicotinic ACh receptors; acetylcholinesterase breaks down ACh in cleft.

Skeletal muscle physiology overview

AP in motor neuron → VG Ca²⁺ channels in terminal → ACh release → AChR activation at motor end plate → muscle AP across sarcolemma/T-tubules → SR Ca²⁺ release → Ca²⁺ binds troponin → cross-bridge cycling → contraction.

Na/K ATPase role

Maintains resting membrane potential by pumping 3 Na⁺ out and 2 K⁺ in using ATP, creating ion gradients critical for excitability. :contentReference[oaicite:67]{index=67}

Ion channels in muscle AP

Voltage-gated Na⁺ channels open rapidly for depolarization; voltage-gated K⁺ channels open more slowly for repolarization; absolute & relative refractory periods relate to channel states.

Excitation-contraction coupling

Depolarization travels into T-tubules → activates voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels on SR → Ca²⁺ released into cytosol → Ca²⁺ binds troponin → tropomyosin moves → myosin-actin cross-bridge cycling occurs.

Conditions for muscle relaxation

Removal of ACh (AChE), reuptake of Ca²⁺ into SR, troponin/tropomyosin block restored, ATP availability for detachment. :contentReference[oaicite:70]{index=70}

Motor unit vs motor pool

Motor unit = one motor neuron + all muscle fibers it innervates. Motor pool = all motor units that innervate a single muscle. Recruitment of motor units increases force. :contentReference[oaicite:71]{index=71}

Tetanus

Sustained contraction due to high-frequency APs; maximum tetanus when additional APs cannot increase tension (Ca²⁺ or cross-bridge limits). :contentReference[oaicite:72]{index=72}

Fast-twitch (Type II)

characteristics

Slow-twitch (Type I)

characteristics

Alzheimer’s disease (AD)

causes & features

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

causes & features

Parkinson’s disease (PD)

causes & features

ANS basic function

Regulate involuntary physiological processes to maintain homeostasis (heart rate, digestion, respiration, glands, pupil size). :contentReference[oaicite:78]{index=78}

ANS divisions

Sympathetic (fight-or-flight) and Parasympathetic (rest-and-digest); plus Enteric for GI tract. :contentReference[oaicite:79]{index=79}

Sympathetic form & function

Thoracolumbar origin (T1-L2), short preganglionic & long postganglionic fibers, divergence → widespread responses; postganglionic often adrenergic (NE). :contentReference[oaicite:80]{index=80}

Parasympathetic form & function

Craniosacral origin, long preganglionic & short postganglionic fibers, terminal ganglia near targets, more discrete/localized effects; postganglionic cholinergic (ACh). :contentReference[oaicite:81]{index=81}

Autonomic vs somatic efferent pathways

Autonomic uses two-neuron chain (preganglionic → ganglion → postganglionic) and controls involuntary effectors; Somatic uses a single lower motor neuron directly to skeletal muscle (voluntary). :contentReference[oaicite:82]{index=82}

HPA axis structure

Hypothalamus (CRH) → anterior pituitary (ACTH) → adrenal cortex (cortisol). Cortisol modulates metabolism, immune response, cognition, and ANS. :contentReference[oaicite:83]{index=83}

Steroid signaling vs ionotropic/metabotropic

Steroids (e.g., cortisol) are hydrophobic, cross membranes, bind intracellular receptors that translocate to nucleus and alter gene expression; ionotropic = ligand-gated ion channels; metabotropic = G-protein coupled, second messenger cascades.

Somatic vs autonomic signaling molecules

Somatic motor = ACh at NMJ (nicotinic receptors) for voluntary muscle; Autonomic uses ACh for preganglionic neurons and ACh or NE at postganglionic synapses depending on system (parasympathetic ACh, sympathetic NE/E). :contentReference[oaicite:85]{index=85}

Cholinergic compounds

Compounds that use or mimic acetylcholine (ACh); include nicotinic (ionotropic) and muscarinic (metabotropic) receptor actions

Adrenergic compounds

Compounds that use or mimic epinephrine/norepinephrine signaling (sympathetic effectors); act on α- and β-adrenergic receptors.

Sleep contributions to health

Supports brain waste clearance, learning & memory consolidation, cellular repair, mood regulation, metabolic and immune function. :contentReference[oaicite:88]{index=88}

Circadian rhythms

your body's natural, ~24-hour internal clock that regulates sleep-wake cycles, hormone release, metabolism, and other functions, synchronized by environmental cues like light, with disruptions linked to health issues

Neuroanatomical substrates of sleep

SCN (hypothalamus) for circadian timing; pineal gland (melatonin); ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (VLPO) inhibits arousal centers via GABA to promote sleep; brainstem reticular activating system controls arousal. :contentReference[oaicite:90]{index=90}

Stages & cycles of sleep

NREM stages 1–3 (progressive deepening & restorative processes) followed by REM (dreaming, memory consolidation); cycles repeat ~90–120 minutes. :contentReference[oaicite:91]{index=91}

Consequences of sleep deprivation

Cognitive impairment, impaired memory, mood dysregulation, metabolic & immune dysfunction. :contentReference[oaicite:92]{index=92}