AP Biology Units 3, 4, 5

carbohydrate

monomer: monosaccharide

function: energy storage

made of: 1C:2H:1O

lipid

glycerol + 3 fatty acids

function: support in cell membrane, store energy

made of: C, H, O

phospholipid: glycerol + phosphate group + 2 fatty acids

protein

monomer: amino acid

function: hormones, antibodies, enzymes

made of: carbon + amino group (NH2) + carboxyl group (COOH) + R group

nucleic acid

monomer: nucleotide

function: storage and transfer of genetic information

made of: phosphate group + sugar (=backbone) + nitrogenous base

pyramadine

nitrogenous base with one ring (cytosine, thymine in DNA, uracil in RNA)

purine

nitrogenous base with two rings (adenine, guanine)

cohesion

hydrogen bonds holding water molecules together

adhesion

water molecules attracted to other substances

moderation of temperature

water absorbs heat from warmer air and releases stored heat into cooler air

specific heat capacity of water

water has high specific heat capacity and can absorb large amounts of heat without greatly affecting water temperature

evaporative cooling

as water evaporates, the remaining surface cools

ocean acidification

CO2 from fossil fuel combustion dissolves in water, reducing the availability of carbonate ions and lowering the pH of the water

carbon electronic configuration

carbon has 4 valence electrons and can form covalent bonds with a variety of atoms, resulting in complicated molecules and carbon structures

single vs. double bonds in carbon

single bonds: tetrahedral shape, carbon double bonded: planar shape

saturated fatty acid

contains maximum # of H atoms, no double bonds, solid at room temp

unsaturated fatty acid

contains one or more double bonds, liquid at room temp

hydrogenation & trans fats

conversion of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids by adding H = trans fats

isomers

molecules with the same chemical formula but different structure and properties

structural isomer

different arrangement of covalent bonds

cis-trans isomers

same covalent bonds, different spatial arrangement

enantiomers

molecules that are mirror images of each other (very important in drug development, one enantiomer might be functional while the other is not)

functional group

the components of an organic molecule which are most involved in chemical reactions

hydroxyl group

-OH

compound name: alcohol

carbonyl group

--CO

compound name: ketone (middle of molecule) or aldehyde (end of molecule, bonded to at least one H)

carboxyl group

-COOH

compound name: carboxylic acid or organic acid

amino group

-NH₂

compound name: amine

sulfhydryl group

-SH

compound name: thiol

phosphate group

-PO₄^2-

compound name: organic phosphate

methyl group

-CH₃

compound name: methylated compound

only nonpolar functional group

adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

adenosine + 3 phosphate groups

stores the potential to react with water, the reaction with water produces energy than can be used by the cell

post-reaction: ADP + inorganic phosphate + energy

macromolecules

big, complex molecules

elements in all organic compounds

carbon & hydrogen

dehydration reaction

two monomers bond to make a polymer, losing a water molecule in the process

hydrolysis

the breakdown of a polymer due to reaction with water

carbohydrates

sugars and the polymers of sugars

monomer of carbs

monosaccharide

polymer of carbs

polysaccharide

glycosidic linkage

covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction

1-4 GL: carbon 1 is connected to carbon 4

1-2 GL: carbon 1 is connected to carbon 2

starch vs glycogen

starch: polysaccharide used to store energy in plants

glycogen: polysaccharide used to store energy in animals, mmore extensively branched than starch

all lipids are…

hydrophobic

steroid structure

carbon skeleton with 4 fused rings

steroids are…

lipids

enzymatic protein

catalysts for chemical reactions

defense protein

protect against diseases ex. antibodies

storage protein

store amino acids

transport protein

transport substances

hormonal protein

coordination of an organism’s activities, chemical signaling in the cell

receptor protein

directs response of a cell to chemical stimulii

contractile/motor protein

contraction of muscles, undulation of cilia and flagella

structural protein

support

polymer of protein

polypeptide (chain of amino acids linked together by dehydration reactions)

4 levels of protein structure

primary: the unique sequence of amino acids that makes up the polypeptide

secondary: coils and folds in the polypeptide chain resulting from repeated components in the backbone (a helix, b pleated sheet)

tertiary: the overall shape resulting from interactions between R groups (side chains)

quaternary: the structure resulting from interactions between 2 or more polypeptides

denaturation

the loss of a protein’s native structure resulting from heat, pH change, salt change

5’ end of a nucleic acid

the phosphate group is attached to the 5th carbon on the sugar

3’ end of a nucleic acid

-OH attached to the 3rd carbon on the sugar

DNA is called antiparallel because…

DNA is formed by two polysaccharides in a double helix. The two backbones run in opposite 5’→ 3’ directions

genomics

studying large sets of genes, comparing genomes of different species

proteomics

studying large sets of proteins

Biuret Test

indicator test for proteins

positive control: purple

Benedict’s Test

indicator test for glucose (monosaccharide)

positive control: orange

IKI Test

indicator test for starch (a polysaccharide)

positive control: black

Sudan IV Test

indicator test for lipids (fats)

positive control: red