HUMAN DEVELOPMENT/PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Developmental Psychologist

They usually concentrate on how an individual who is constantly changing reacts to the many changes in an ever-changing environment.

3 major paths of human development

Physical Development, Psychosocial Development, and Cognitive Development

Physical Development

like changes in bodily and structure, which changes in bodily activities like motor skills.

Psychosocial Development

which includes changes in social and emotional aspects of personality.

Cognitive Development

which are changes in the thought processes that could affect language, learning abilities, and memory.

Qualitative Changes

refer to a progressive series of change leading to improvement like those changes in kind that distinguish an infant who have underdeveloped motor skill from a baby who can walk already.

Quantitative Changes

refer to the measurable changes in an individual like changes in height, body proportion and the like. It also referred to as growth.

Development

Qualitative changes refer to this which involves progressive series of changes that are coherent and orderly.

2 factors of development

nature & nurture

Heredity

provides all the raw materials and hidden potentials of an individual, setting a limit at the same time for some behaviors.

Environment

Determines the manner by which the raw materials are to be shaped.

Maturation

is the gradual unfolding of heredity traits and potentials.

Maturity

marks the end of the growth and development.

Phylogenetic Functions

are common to the race like sitting and walking, and development occurs through maturation.

Ontogenetic Functions

traits specific to the individual like swimming and writing are learned through training.

Body or Somatic Cells

has a nucleus, which contains 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs of chromosomes.

Germ or Reproductive Cells

contains only 23 chromosomes, one from each pair instead of full 46, these germs cells are the egg cell or ovum from the mother and sperm cell from the father.

Fertilization

During this stage, the 23 chromosomes from the sperm will pair up with the 23-chromosomes from the egg cell, to form 46 chromosomes needed by a new human being.

Chromosomes

are thread-like or rope-like bodies that contain the genes.

Genes

are the real bearers of hereditatry traits.

Dominant Genes

are strong genes; the trait that carry will always be manifested in the offspring.

Recessive Genes

are weak genes; that trait that carries can only be manifested if it is paired with another of its kind.

Principle of Reproduction

states that '“Like begets like”, where human individuals will produce their own kind.

Principle of Variation

states that ‘No” two individuals of any kind are exactly “alike” even identical twins have mild differences like one could be slightly taller than the other.

Principle of Dominance and Recessiveness

this principle determines the presence of similarities and differences among family members.

Principle of Chance

within the limits of potential traits transmissible by heredity, chance plays a significant role making absolute prediction almost impossible.

Principle of Sec-Linked Characteristics

these sex-linked traits are carried by the same genes that determine sex.

Identical or Monozygotic Twins

arise when one egg cell/ovum further divides into two after being fertilized by one sperm. they have exactly the same genetic constitutions, thus, they always have the same sex very similar looks.

Non-identical/fraternal or Dizygotic Twins

arises from two eggs/ova which are fertilized by two different sperm cells. they are no longer the same in their genetic makeup, thus, they may be of the same of different sexes.

In-vitro fertilization

an ovum is extracted from the mother’s ovary and then, the ovum is allowed to mature in incubator and fertilized with a few drops of the father’s sperms. after fertilized egg (zygote) had divided into eight cells, this is implanted in the mother’s uterus where it grows in a normal way.

Artificial Insemination by a Donor (AID)

the woman is inseminated with the sperm of a donor because her husband is infertile. the anonymous donor trait is usually matched with the racial traits of the father.

Surrogate Motherhood

when the man is fertile and the woman is not, in such case another woman may be inseminated with sperm of the father. She conceives the child until delivery and turns the baby to him and his wife.

Cloning/Mapping

involved the process of creating identical copy or mirror image of an original. In the biological sense, a clone refers to a single cell or multi-cellular organism which is usually genetically identical to another living organism.

Gestation Period

266 days while the fetus develops within the mother’s womb.

Period of the ovum/germinal stage (prenatal stage)

starts from fertilization to two weeks. the fertilized egg (zygote) undergoes rapid cell division which results into a complex organism with rudimentary body parts.

Period of the Embryo

begins from second week to eight weeks or two months. protective ad nurturing organs like the umbilical cord connect the embryo to the placenta. rapid growth takes place where the major body organs and systems like the alimentary, respiratory, and nervous system develop.

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this period is the most vulnerable for prenatal environment influence.

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most developmental defects like cleft-palate, incomplete limbs, and blindness as well as cases of abortions occur during this critical three-month period or first trimester of pregnancy.

Period of the fetus (prenatal)

covers the eight weeks to birth. rapid growth and changes in the body form also characterize this stage as well as appearance of the first bone cell. within the last three months of pregnancy, the fetus gains about eight ounces in weight every week within which it grows rapidly.

Placenta

this organ brings oxygen and nourishment to the embryo and at the same time it absorbs body wastes.

Amniotic Sac

is a thin membrane that protects and encases the embryo.

Natural or Spontaneous Birth

results when the fetus’ head emerges first through the birth canal followed by one shoulder then the other, next by the arms one at a time and finally the legs.

Instrument Bith

is employed with the aid of surgical instruments if the fetus is too large or if its position does not allow normal birth process.

Breech Birth

takes place if the fetal buttocks appear first, followed by the legs, arms and eventually the head. Instruments can sometimes be used to aid delivery here.

Transverse Presentation Birth

occurs when the fetus lies crosswise in the mother’s uterus. Again instruments can be used to aid delivery.

Cesarean-Section Birth

is employed when the fetus is delivered surgically by means of a slit created in the maternal abdominal wall.

More than 48 hours

the time needed to adjust to the change in locale from the mother’s womb to the external world.

Infancy Period

from birth to two weeks

Period of the Partunate (infancy period)

this covers the first 15 to 10 minutes after birth, once the umbilical cord has been cut; the infant at this point becomes a separate and independent being.

Period of Neonate (postnatal stage) (infancy period)

this covers the rest of the infancy period. it usually ends with the falling off the umbilical cord, almost two weeks after birth.

Babyhood Period (postnatal stage)

extends from the second week of infancy up to the second year life. this period is also known as “AGE OF HELPLESSNESS”.

Sucking Reflex

where newborns start to suck things that touch their mouth.

Rooting Reflex

babies would turn their head toward the source of something that stimulates their cheek or mouth.

Babinski Reflex

where there is fanning out of the baby’s toes when his sole is touched.

Darwinian Reflex

causes the baby to grasp tightly objects placed in their hands

Moro or Startle Reflex

is display when the baby hears a loud noise, he usually throw out his arms and put them back together in his chest.

Pupillary Reflex

wherein the baby closes his eyes where there is a bright ray that hits his eyes.

Swimming reflex

where babies usually make well-coordinated movements when they are put in water with face down.

Childhood Stage

this stage starts from two years to the onset of puberty and it is divided into two parts

Early Childhood Stage

extends from two years to six years. it is also called as the “AGE OF CURIOSITY”. aside from questioning, this period is also characterized by aggression and negativisim.

Late Childhood Stage

extends from six years up to the onset of puberty, sometimes between eleven to twelve years of age. this stage is labeled as the “THE SMART STAGE” because children think that they know everything when they talk. Also called the “GANG STAGE”

Motor Development

refers to the ability of the child to have control over his bodily movement. Usually depends on neural and muscular maturation.

Cephalo-caudal sequence

if the development proceeds from head-to-toe direction where the upper parts of the body develop first before the bottom parts

Proximo-distal Sequence

if development proceeds from near to far, with the bodily parts near the center developing first before the extremities.

Jean Piaget

is a swiss biologist and psychologist has the most influential explanation about intelluctual/cognitive development.

Sensorimotor Stage (birth-2years)

where infants use their senses and their motor behaviors rather than their thinking to learn about their world.

Object Permanence. it is the realization that an object or person continues to be present even if it is already absent.

Pre-operational Stage (2-7yrs)

children at this age use symbols like words to represent people and objects. they can already understand that objects continue to be the same even if its form changed. Children are still egocentric.

Concrete Operation Stage (7yrs-12yrs)

children are no longer egocentric. Children acquire the concept of conservation which is the ability to recognize that substance can be conserve at different dimensions and different times.

they also begin to use logic regarding tangible or concrete objects happenings.

they can understand reversibility.

Formal Operation Stage (12 yrs and older)

children at this stage can think like a scientist. they can already solve problems thru logical reasoning, even theoretically and abstractly. they consider all available data before they conclude.

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Language

includes any means by which a person expresses his ideas, his thoughts and his feelings. some forms of language are writing, sign language, gestures, pantomime, speaking and the art.

Speech

involves distinct and articulate sounds or words to convey meanings.

also requires the coordination of the various vocal muscles movement and mechanism.

Crying

begins at birth to indicate distress and it serves as a rudimentary means of communication.

Cooing or Babbling

it is considered as the second preliminary from of communication. like yawning, sneezing, coughing, sighing, growling, and other sounds.

Cooing

sounds are produced by the chance movements of the team of muscles used for vocal mechanisms.

starts at the end of the first month

it is so-called because it consists of oo sounds that are similar to the sounds that pigeons make.

Babbling

begins in the middle of the first-year.

explosive sounds or the act of producing strings of consonant- vowel combinations.

Gestures and Non-verbal Communication

appears by the third to the sixteen months of his age.

Communicative Competence

refers to the ability of the child to convey his thoughts and ideas, his feelings and intentions in a meaningful and socially approved manner.

Communication

is a two-way process whereby we send messages to people and receive messages from them.

Productive Language

we produce communications; while we use receptive language, we receive communications from other people.

Phonology

refers to the unit or systems of sounds or phonemes that are used in a particular language and the rules for combining these sounds.

Semantics

refers to the study of word meanings and the word combinations.

Declarative Gesture

wherein the baby calls on somebody else’s attention to an object pointing or touching it.

Imperative Gestures

in which the baby tries to convince somebody to do something through his actions like pointing at a toy that he wants, and or tugging at the skirts of a caregiver when he wants to be picked up.

Emotional Expressions

It is the fourth pre-speech from of communication. it is done thru facial and bodily changes.

Grammar

involves a description of the structure of a language which consists of two major parts namely, morphology and syntax.

Morphology

refers to the study of morphemes which is the smallest ubbit of meaning in a language.

Syntax

is the part of grammar that specifies and prescribes on how words are combined into phrases, clauses, and sentences.

Pragmatics

deals about the rules for the use of a language in a particular context.

Sociolinguistic Knowledge

which are culturally approved rules that dictate on how language should be used in a particular context.

The Learning (or Empiricist) View

this theory used the traditional learning that children imitate what they hear, and they are when they say things incorrectly.

The Nativist View

Chomsky, proposed that children are born with an innate mental structure that guides their acquisition of language, and grammar in particular. This view claims that due to the unique biological properties of the human being, the child therefore is predisposed to acquire language.

The Interactionist View

this view believes that language development is the result and product of a complex transaction and interplay between nature and nurture.

Social Development

refers to the acquisition of the ability to behave in accordance with social expectations.

Home

is considered as a seat of learning.

Puberty Stage

overlaps the end of childhood and it also touches the early part of adolescence. it is known as “AGE OF CONFUSION”.

Pre-pubescence

where changes in primary sexual characteristics occur; these are usually changes in the reproductive apparatus.

Post-pubescence

this stage is marked by the completion of pubic hair growth. there is also completion in the primary sexual characteristic or maturation of reproductive apparatus and secondary sexual characteristics, which are changes in traits that makes a male and female typically adult in looks.

Young Adolescent

where most pubertal changes occur. the young adolescent usually tends to be unpredictable, unstable as well as unsociable at times. this extends from 13 to 17 years of age.

Older Adolescent

who tends to lack sophistication and displays uncontrolled impulse for sexual behavior. this is from 18 to 24 years of age.

Adolescence

“period of storm and stress” during this time, more powerful chemical substances called hormones are produced by the endocrine glands which make them engage in impulsive behavior.

Early adulthood stage

extends from 21 to 40 years of age. enters a period of adjustments to new patterns of life and to new social expectations.

Middle Adulthood

extends from 40 to 60 years of age. It is usually the fullest and the most creative season in the life span.