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Enlightenment

An 18th-century intellectual and cultural movement that emphasized reason, individualism, and human rights, challenging traditional authorities like monarchs and the church.

Sovereignty

The supreme authority of a state to govern itself without external interference.

Scientific Revolution

A period of significant advancements in scientific thought and inquiry from the 16th to 18th centuries, marking a fundamental shift from medieval, religiously-based explanations to an empirical and experimental approach to understanding the natural world.

Issac Newton

A key figure in the Scientific Revolution and a major influence on the Enlightenment, whose work emphasized reason, observation, and mathematical precision.

Philosophes

The Enlightenment thinkers who applied reason and scientific principles to politics and society, advocating for individual rights, freedom, and government based on logic and consent.

Social Contract

Individuals implicitly or explicitly agree to give up some individual freedoms in exchange for the protection of the state and the benefits of an organized society.

Natural Rights

Fundamental rights, such as life, liberty, and property, that individuals are believed to possess simply by being human, not because of government.

Mary Wollstonecraft

An English writer, philosopher, and advocate for women's rights during the Enlightenment era. An early feminist thought and her argument that women should receive the same educational and social rights as men. Wrote "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman".

Romanticism

An intellectual and artistic movement that emerged in the late 18th century as a reaction against the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason and science.

Conservatism

A political ideology that seeks to preserve traditional institutions, customs, and values, preferring gradual, organic change over revolutionary or sudden shifts. Ex: Social hierarchies, the importance of existing structures like religion and monarchy, requiring a stable, traditional framework to guide society.

Deism

A belief that a divinity created the universe but does not intervene in its affairs.

Liberalism

A political ideology that emphasizes individual liberties, equality, and constitutional, limited government.

Radicals

Political groups or individuals advocating for fundamental and immediate change, often to the point of revolution, rather than gradual reform.

John Locke

A 17th-century English philosopher known as the "Father of Liberalism" for his influential ideas on natural rights, the social contract, and limited government. Key concepts include the belief that all individuals are born with "inalienable" rights to life, liberty, and property.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

An Enlightenment philosopher whose ideas of the social contract and the "general will" greatly influenced modern political thought and the French Revolution. Humans are naturally good but corrupted by society, and that legitimate government comes from the collective will of the people, not an absolute sovereign.

Baron Von Montesquieu

A French Enlightenment philosopher known for advocating separation of powers within a government to prevent tyranny. Executive, legislative, and judicial—each with a system of checks and balances to limit the power of the others.

Thomas Hobbes

An English philosopher who, in his work Leviathan, argued that people in a "state of nature" live a life that is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short" due to their inherent selfishness.

Immanuel Kant

A German philosopher from the Enlightenment known for his emphasis on reason, autonomy, and his contribution to ethics, particularly the concept of the Categorical Imperative.

Separation of Powers

A political concept where governmental authority is divided among distinct branches—typically legislative, executive, and judicial—to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.

Balance of Power

A political theory and historical practice where states form alliances or take other actions to prevent any single nation from becoming dominant.

Parliament

A legislative body that represents citizens and makes laws, and it often served as a check on the power of monarchs.

Glorious Revolution

The overthrow of King James II of England in 1688 by a union of English Parliamentarians and the Dutch stadtholder William of Orange.

Citizen

A native or naturalized member of a state or nation who owes allegiance to its government and is entitled to its protection and full rights, such as voting and participation in political life.

Civil Rights

The guarantees and freedoms of equal treatment and protection under the law, regardless of characteristics like race, gender, or religion.

Adam Smith

An 18th-century Scottish economist and philosopher known as the "father of modern economics" for his work, especially the book The Wealth of Nations.

Olympe de Gouges

A French playwright and political activist during the French Revolution, known for writing the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791). As a staunch advocate for women's rights, she demanded that the revolutionary ideals of liberty and equality be extended to women, and she was also a vocal abolitionist who opposed slavery.

Seven Years Wars

A global conflict involving major European powers like Britain, France, and their allies, fought for dominance in North America, the Caribbean, Africa, and India.

Estate System

A social and political hierarchy, most famously the pre-revolutionary French system, that divided society into distinct, legally defined groups or "estates".

French Revolution

A period of radical social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799 that overthrew the absolute monarchy, ended the Ancien Régime, and led to the rise of republicanism and the eventual establishment of a republic under Napoleon Bonaparte.

Guillotine

A mechanical device for beheading.

Declaration of Rights of Man

A foundational document of the French Revolution, proclaimed Enlightenment ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. It asserted that all men are born free and equal, that sovereignty resides with the people, and that fundamental rights like freedom of speech and religion are inalienable and should be protected by law.

Thomas Jefferson

Author of the Declaration of Independence, the third President of the United States, and a key figure in the Democratic-Republican Party. Liberties and limited government.

Bourgeoisie

The Kardashians of the enlightenment period. (Middle class)

Tennis Court Oath

A pledge made by the members of the French Third Estate vowed not to disband until a new constitution was established for France. It was a pivotal event in the French Revolution that defied King Louis XVI's authority and asserted the power of the people's representatives over the absolute monarchy.

Primogeniture

A law that gives the eldest son the right to inherit the entire family estate.

Maroons

Descendants of escaped enslaved Africans who established independent, self-governing communities in remote areas of the Americas.

Creoles

People of European ancestry born in the Americas or other colonies, distinct from those born in the "mother country".

Peninsulares

People born in Spain or Portugal who held the highest social status and political power in Spanish and Portuguese colonies in the Americas.

Napoleon Bonaparte

A military leader and emperor who rose to power after the French Revolution, ultimately spreading the Napoleonic Code across Europe, which inspired both admiration and resistance, leading to the rise of nationalism and the Napoleonic Wars. Attempted to restore French colonial power, which led to the Haitian Revolution.

Napoleonic Code

A set of French civil laws enacted by Napoleon Bonaparte that unified the legal system, replacing the fragmented, feudal laws of the time.

Absolute Monarch

A ruler who holds complete and unrestricted power over a state and its people, with authority not limited by laws or a constitution.

King Louis XVI

The monarchy's inability to reform the country's deep financial crisis and the social unrest that followed, leading to his deposition and execution by guillotine. France's support for the American Revolution exacerbate its debt and his dismissal of the Third Estate's reforms contributed to the outbreak of the French Revolution.

Maximilien Robespierre

A key figure in the French Revolution, a lawyer and radical leader of the Jacobin Club who became dominant during the Reign of Terror. Championed Enlightenment ideals like equality and universal suffrage

Miguel Hidalgo

A Roman Catholic priest who is known as the "Father of Mexican Independence" for initiating the Mexican War of Independence against Spanish rule in 1810.

Jose Morales

A Mexican priest and revolutionary who continued the fight for Mexican independence after the execution of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla in 1811.

Jose de San Martin

A key Argentine general and statesman who was one of the principal leaders of the independence movements against Spanish rule in Argentina, Chile, and Peru. Envisioned a united South America as a confederation of independent states, a vision that ultimately contrasted with the more centralized plans of Simón Bolívar.

Dom Pedro I

The first Emperor of Brazil, who played a key role in the country's 1822 independence from Portugal and established its imperial government.

Simon Bolivar

A key figure in the Latin American Wars of Independence against Spanish rule. He was a Venezuelan military and political leader, known as "El Libertador" (The Liberator), who led successful independence movements for Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. His vision included creating a unified, large country called Gran Colombia, though this ultimately failed due to political fragmentation.

Latin American Revolutions

A series of independence movements in the late 18th and early 19th centuries where colonies in Latin America fought against European colonial powers, primarily Spain and Portugal, leading to the establishment of independent nations.

Gran Colombia

A short-lived, unified South American republic (1819-1831) created by Simón Bolívar to unify former Spanish colonies, including the territories of modern-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

A formerly enslaved man who became a pivotal leader of the Haitian Revolution, which successfully overthrew French colonial rule and abolished slavery. Leaded one of the most successful slave rebellions and fighting for liberty, equality, and self-determination.

Jamaica Letter

An 1815 document by Simón Bolívar that outlines his vision for the future of newly independent Latin America. Reflects on the social and political struggles of Spanish American independence, criticizes Spanish colonialism, and argues for a unified, stable government structure for the new republics.

Haitian Revolution

A successful slave revolt in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) from 1791 to 1804. Parked by the ideals of the French Revolution and inspired by Enlightenment principles, it led to the abolition of slavery and the establishment of the world's first independent Black republic.

Grand Blancs

The wealthy, elite white plantation owners in French colonial Saint-Domingue (Haiti) who dominated the economy and held significant political power.

Petit Blancs

The poor, white population of the French colony of Saint-Domingue (modern-day Haiti).

Saint Domingue

The French colony on the western part of the island of Hispaniola.

Haiti

The French colony of Saint-Domingue.

Popular Sovereignty

The principle that a government's authority is created and sustained by the consent of its people, often expressed through elected representatives.

Populist Politics

"the people" against a corrupt "elite," and can be found on both the left and the right of the political spectrum.

Self-Determination

The principle that an ethnic group or a people has the right to govern themselves and determine their own political status and economic, social, and cultural development.

Nationalism

A political ideology that emphasizes the loyalty and interests of a particular nation, defined by a common culture, language, history, and territory, often leading to movements for self-determination and independence.

Zionism

A late 19th-century nationalist movement that advocated for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

Theodor Herzl

An Austrian journalist and the founder of modern political Zionism, advocating for the establishment of a Jewish state in response to growing anti-Semitism in Europe.

Nation

A group of people with a shared identity based on common culture, language, history, or ethnicity.

Count Cavour

An Italian statesman and a key figure in the unification of Italy, serving as the prime minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia.

Giuseppe Mazzini

An Italian nationalist and revolutionary who was a key figure in the 19th-century Italian unification movement, known as the Risorgimento. He founded the political movement Young Italy in 1831, which aimed to create a unified, independent, and democratic Italian nation through popular uprising, a vision that significantly influenced other nationalist movements across Europe.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

An Italian general, nationalist, and a key figure in the 19th-century unification of Italy. He was a passionate military leader whose successful campaigns, particularly the Expedition of the Thousand in Sicily, united southern Italy with the north and helped form the Kingdom of Italy, making him a crucial part of a broader wave of European nationalism.

Otto von Bismarck

A conservative Prussian statesman and the first Chancellor of the German Empire, best known for orchestrating the unification of Germany in 1871. He used his policy of Realpolitik, a pragmatic approach to politics based on power and national interest, along with a series of wars, to unite various German states under Prussian leadership.

Realpolitik

A political approach where a state's foreign policy is based on practical and strategic considerations of national interest and power, rather than on ideology or moral principles.

Levee en masse

A French policy of total war and mass conscription enacted in 1793 to mobilize the entire French population for the war effort against foreign threats.

Congress of Vienna

A series of diplomatic meetings in Europe from 1814-1815 that aimed to restore order and stability after the Napoleonic Wars.

Klemens von Metternich

An Austrian statesman and diplomat who dominated European politics from 1815 to 1848. a period sometimes called the "Age of Metternich". A key figure at the Congress of Vienna, he championed a conservative ideology that aimed to restore a balance of power, re-establish monarchical rule, and suppress rising nationalist and liberal movements after the Napoleonic Wars.

Pan-Slavism

A 19th-century political and cultural movement that aimed to unify all Slavic peoples based on shared linguistic, cultural, and historical ties. It emerged as a powerful force in the rise of nationalism, inspiring Slavic groups to seek self-determination and independence from empires like Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire.

Revolutions of 1848

A 19th-century political and cultural movement that aimed to unify all Slavic peoples based on shared linguistic, cultural, and historical ties. It emerged as a powerful force in the rise of nationalism, inspiring Slavic groups to seek self-determination and independence from empires like Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire.

Taiping Rebellion

A massive civil war in China from 1850 to 1864, led by Hong Xiuquan who proclaimed himself the younger brother of Jesus Christ. It was a revolt against the Qing Dynasty fueled by economic hardship, poverty, and discontent with the government, which resulted in millions of deaths and devastated parts of China.

Hong Xiuquan

Chinese religious leader who led the Taiping Rebellion against the Qing Dynasty from 1850 to 1864.

Nanjing

The unequal treaty that ended the First Opium War between Great Britain and China's Qing Dynasty. ALso a chineese city.

Sepoy

An Indian soldier hired by the British East India Company for its army.

Sepoy Rebellion

A widespread uprising in India against the rule of the British East India Company, which began with a mutiny among Indian soldiers.

Muslim League

A political party founded in 1906 in the Indian subcontinent to protect the political interests of Muslims.