Confessional Divisions and The Wars of Religion

What sparked the German Peasants’ War, and how did it relate to the Reformation?

Peasants misinterpreted Luther’s “Freedom of a Christian” as social liberation. They revolted, demanding social equality. Luther rejected the uprising, urging nobles to kill rebels “like rabid dogs,” resulting in 70,000-100,000 peasants slaughtered, showing the limits of theological reforms in promoting social justice.

What was the Schmalkaldic League, and what was its purpose?

A defensive alliance of Protestant German states formed in 1531 to degend Lutheranism after the Augsburg Confession (1530). It fought two war against the Emperor and led to the Peace of Augsburg in 1555.

What were the three key principles of the Peace of Augsburg (1555)

1. Cuius regio, eius religio - the religion of the ruler becomes the religion of the state.

2. Reservatum ecclesiasticum - ecclesiastical leaders who convert do not change the religion of their subjects.

3. Declaratio Ferdinandei - free imperial cities practicing reformed religion since the 1520s were allowed to remain religiously mixed.

Why is the Peace of Augsburg significant?

It was the first legal recognition of Lutheranism and introduced limited regious pluralism, but excluded Calvinism and Anabaptism, planting seeds for future conflict (ex: the Thirty Years’ War).

Why did Charles V abdicate (resign) in the mid-16th century?

Spiritually and politically exhausted by confessional division and Protestant expansion, he abdicated (resigned) in 1556, splitting his realm between Philips II (Spain) and Ferdinand (Holy Roman Empire) — creating Spanish and German Habsburg line.

Who were the three main factions in the French Wars of Religion?

• Huguenots (Calvinists): Led by Henry of Navarre (Bourbon)

• Politique royal family: Led by Catherine de Medici

• Catholic extremists: Led by the Guise family, supported by Jesuits.

What triggered the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1572)?

The planned marriage between Margot (Catholic) and Henry of Navarre (Huguenot), intended to bring peace, instead led to mass killing of Protestants in Paris — escalating the conflict.

What sparked the Dutch Revolt against Spain?

Resistance of Spanish Catholic control, destruction of Protestant churches/art, and economic exploitation led to revolt. In 1579, seven provinces formed the Union of Utrecht (a political alliance and a religious federation), declaring independence.

What were the milestones of Dutch independence?

• 1581: Declaration of independence from Spain

• 1588: Establishment of the Dutch Republic

• 1648: International recognition via Peace of Westphalia

What ignited the Thirty Years’ War in Bohemia (1618)?

Bohemian nobles rejected Habsburg Ferdinand II and elected Protestant Frederick V instead. The war began with the Defenestration of Prague — a protest against Habsburg Catholic dominance.

What were the four phases of the Thirty Years’ War?

1. Bohemian Phase (1618-25): Protestant loss

2. Danish Phase (1625-30): Denmark defeated, Edict of Restitution.

3. Swedish Phase (1630-35): Initial Protestant gians, then pushback.

4. French Phase (1635-48): France joined to counter Habsburgs

What were the human costs of the Thirty Years’ War?

• 40% rural population loss

• 33% urban loss

• Cities like Magdeburg nearly annihilated, only 2.464 left by 1644.

What were the tenets of the Peace of Westphalia?

• Reaffirmed cuius regio, eius religio

• Added Calvinism as a legal religion

• Guaranteed minority religious rights (public and private)

• Recognized Dutch and Swiss sovereignty

What was the political legacy of Westphalia?

• Marked the birth of state sovereignty and modern diplomacy

• Formalized non-intervention in domestic affairs

• Weakened the Holy Roman Empire permanently.