chapter 8 & 9

Big Five Personality Traits

A model describing five core traits that influence an individual's personality: Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, Openness, and Extraversion.

Agreeableness

Refers to personality traits such as being cooperative, compassionate, and friendly, as opposed to being irritable and competitive.

Conscientiousness

A trait characterized by being organized, responsible, and efficient, contrasting with being disorganized and impulsive.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

A personality framework categorizing individuals into 16 personality types based on 4 dichotomies (e.g., ISTJ vs. ENFP).

Emotional Intelligence (EQ)

The ability to identify, understand, and manage one's own emotions and the emotions of others.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A motivational theory proposing that people are motivated by a hierarchy of needs, starting from physiological needs to self-actualization.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

A theory that differentiates between hygiene factors that prevent dissatisfaction and motivators that enhance satisfaction.

Equity Theory

A concept that suggests individuals assess their work input/output ratio in comparison to others to determine fairness.

Transformational Leadership

A leadership approach that inspires followers to commit to a shared vision and to achieve more than they thought possible.

Rational Decision-Making Process

A structured mathematical model for making decisions, consisting of recognizing the situation, identifying alternatives, evaluating them, choosing, implementing, and evaluating the results.

Programmed Decisions

Routine decisions with established rules and procedures, often made repeatedly.

Nonprogrammed Decisions

Unique, strategic decisions made in response to unpredictable conditions or complex problems.

Path-Goal Theory

A leadership theory stating that a leader's function is to clear the path to goals for their followers by adapting their style to the situation.

Locus of Control

The degree to which individuals believe they have control over the outcome of events in their lives.

Self-Efficacy

An individual's belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task.

Decision Tree

A graphical representation of decisions and their possible consequences, including chance event outcomes.

Escalation of Commitment

The phenomenon wherein individuals continue to invest in a failing course of action due to their prior investments.

Political Forces in Decision Making

The influence that informal coalitions and internal politics have on the decision-making process.

Risk Propensity

An individual's willingness to take risks, influencing their decisions in uncertain contexts.

Substitutes for Leadership

Factors that diminish the need for leadership, such as highly skilled teams that can operate independently.

Legitimate Power

Power that comes from an individual's position or role in an organization.

Reward Power

Power that derives from the ability of a leader to provide rewards or benefits to others.

Coercive Power

Power that involves the ability to influence others through fear of punishment.

Expert Power

Power based on an individual's specialized knowledge or skills.

Referent Power

Influence wielded by a leader due to their charisma, likability, and admiration from followers.

Big Five Personality Traits

A model describing five core traits that influence an individual's personality: Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, Openness, and Extraversion.

absenteeism

Definition: When employees do not show up for work.

Example: A worker frequently calling in sick or not showing up without notice can lead to lower productivity in a retail store.

affect

Definition: A person’s emotional response toward something, which influences behavior.

Example: An employee who feels happy about a recent promotion may show more enthusiasm and productivity at work.

attitudes

Definition: A person’s beliefs and feelings about specific ideas, situations, or people.

Example: A positive attitude toward teamwork can lead an employee to cooperate more effectively on group projects.

authoritarianism

Definition: The degree to which a person believes in strict obedience to authority.

Example: An employee with high authoritarianism may not question their manager’s instructions, even if they seem inefficient.

Classical Theory of Motivation

Definition: Theory suggesting that money is the primary motivator for workers.

Example: A company offering bonuses to increase productivity is applying the classical theory of motivation.

Cognition

Definition: The knowledge a person has about a situation.

Example: A worker who knows their company values innovation may suggest new ideas to align with those expectations.

cognitive dissonance

Definition: Mental discomfort experienced when a person holds two conflicting thoughts or beliefs.

Example: An employee who values honesty but is asked to mislead a client may experience cognitive dissonance.

counter productive behaviors

Definition: Actions that detract from organizational performance.

Example: Gossiping, stealing office supplies, or showing up late are all counterproductive behaviors.

emotional intelligence (EQ)

Definition: The ability to understand and manage your own emotions and those of others.

Example: A manager who stays calm during a crisis and helps their team stay focused demonstrates high emotional intelligence.

employee behavior

Definition: The pattern of actions by members of an organization that influences its effectiveness.

Example: Regularly helping coworkers and meeting deadlines are forms of positive employee behavior.

Equity Theory

Definition: Theory that employees are motivated by fairness in the workplace.

Example: A worker who feels underpaid compared to colleagues doing the same job may reduce effort due to perceived inequity.

expectancy theory

Definition: Suggests motivation depends on how much people want something and how likely they think they are to get it.

Example: An employee works hard for a promotion because they believe their performance will be rewarded.

Flextime Programs

Definition: Work programs allowing employees to choose their working hours within limits.

Example: A parent chooses to start work at 7 a.m. and leave by 3 p.m. to pick up their children.

hawthorne effect

Definition: Tendency of people to perform better when they know they’re being observed.

Example: Workers might become more productive during a study because they know management is watching.

maslow hierarchy of needs

Definition: Maslow’s theory that human needs form a hierarchy, from basic (physiological) to self-fulfillment (self-actualization).

Example: A company offering health benefits (basic need) and opportunities for promotion (esteem and self-actualization) is applying this model.

individual differences

Definition: Variations in personal characteristics like personality, perception, or values that affect behavior.

Example: Two employees might respond differently to the same manager’s feedback—one may feel encouraged, while another feels criticized.

intention

Definition: A component of attitude that guides a person’s behavior.

Example: A motivated intern may intend to complete tasks ahead of schedule to impress their manager.

job enrichment

Definition: Adding more meaningful tasks to a job to make it more rewarding.

Example: A bakery assistant given responsibility to develop new pastry recipes experiences job enrichment.

job redesign

Definition: Structuring jobs to improve productivity and satisfaction by combining tasks or rotating roles.

Example: A factory rotates workers between stations to reduce boredom and increase engagement.

job satisfaction

Definition: The degree to which people enjoy their jobs.

Example: An employee who feels valued, fairly paid, and engaged at work is likely to report high job satisfaction.

locus of control

Definition: The degree to which individuals believe they control their fate (internal) or it’s controlled by outside forces (external).

Example: A salesperson with an internal locus of control may believe they can increase sales through effort and strategy.

Machiavellianism

Definition: A personality trait describing someone who is manipulative and emotionally detached in pursuing personal goals.

Example: A manager who deceives coworkers to gain a promotion may display Machiavellianism.

Management by Objectives (MBO)

Definition: A system where managers and employees set goals together and assess performance based on achievement.

Example: A team agrees with their supervisor to boost customer satisfaction by 10% within three months.

Motivation

Definition: The internal drive to fulfill a need or achieve a goal.

Example: A student studying late into the night for a scholarship exam is driven by motivation.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

Definition: A personality assessment tool that classifies individuals into 16 personality types based on preferences.

Example: A company uses MBTI to place an introverted employee in a back-end development role rather than customer service.

Need for Achievement

Definition: A desire to accomplish goals and seek excellence.

Example: An entrepreneur constantly striving to expand their business is motivated by a high need for achievement.

Need for Affiliation

Definition: The desire to form close personal relationships.

Example: An employee who prefers collaborative work and values team bonding has a high need for affiliation.

Need for Power

Definition: The desire to influence or control others.

Example: A supervisor who enjoys leading team meetings and delegating tasks may have a high need for power.

Organizational Citizenship

Definition: Positive behavior that goes beyond job requirements and contributes to organizational success.

Example: An employee who voluntarily mentors new hires is demonstrating organizational citizenship.

Organizational Commitment

Definition: An employee’s identification with and loyalty to the organization.

Example: A worker who stays late during busy periods without being asked shows strong organizational commitment.

Participative Management and Empowerment

Definition: A management style where employees are involved in decision-making and have more control over their work.

Example: A team allowed to choose its own project goals and timeline is experiencing participative management.

Performance Behaviors

Definition: Actions directly involved in producing goods or services.

Example: A barista making coffee efficiently and accurately is demonstrating performance behaviors.

Personality

Definition: A stable set of psychological traits that influence how a person behaves.

Example: An outgoing, sociable personality might make someone well-suited for sales or customer service.

Person-Job Fit

Definition: The extent to which a person’s skills and personality match the job requirements.

Example: A creative, independent thinker might fit well in a graphic design role but struggle in a highly regulated finance position.

Positive Reinforcement

Definition: Encouraging desired behavior by offering rewards.

Example: A company that gives bonuses to employees for meeting performance goals uses positive reinforcement.

Psychological Contract

Definition: Unwritten expectations between an employee and the employer.

Example: An employee may expect respect and fair treatment even if it’s not in their formal job description.

Punishment

Definition: Applying negative consequences to reduce unwanted behavior.

Example: A worker who consistently arrives late receives a written warning as a form of punishment.

Risk Propensity

Definition: A person’s willingness to take risks.

Example: A CEO who invests in a risky startup venture despite potential losses has high risk propensity.

Self-Efficacy

Definition: Belief in one’s ability to perform a task or reach a goal.

Example: A confident coder who believes they can learn a new programming language quickly shows strong self-efficacy.

Self-Esteem

Definition: A person’s overall sense of self-worth.

Example: An employee who takes pride in their accomplishments and trusts their own judgment has high self-esteem.

Social Learning

Definition: Learning by observing others and modeling their behavior.

Example: A new employee who copies the work habits of a high-performing coworker is learning socially.

Telecommuting (or Teleworking)

Definition: Working from a remote location, usually from home, using digital communication.

Example: A graphic designer who completes projects from home and submits them online is telecommuting.

Theory X

Definition: A management belief that employees dislike work and must be controlled or threatened to be productive.

Example: A supervisor who closely monitors employees and assumes they’ll slack off without strict rules follows Theory X.

Theory Y

Definition: A belief that employees enjoy work and will be motivated by internal rewards and participation.

Example: A manager who trusts employees to set their own schedules and work independently applies Theory Y.

Turnover

Definition: The rate at which employees leave an organization and are replaced.

Example: A fast-food chain that frequently hires and loses employees has a high turnover rate.

Two-Factor Theory

Definition: Herzberg’s theory that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from two different sets of factors—motivators and hygiene factors.

Example: Opportunities for achievement motivate employees, while lack of proper pay (a hygiene factor) can cause dissatisfaction.

Work Sharing (or Job Sharing)

Definition: Two or more employees share the responsibilities of a single full-time position.

Example: Two part-time receptionists alternate shifts to cover one full-time front desk position.

Behavioral Approach to Leadership

Definition: Focuses on the behaviors leaders use rather than traits or characteristics.

Example: A leader who consistently communicates clearly and supports team decisions follows the behavioral approach.

Charismatic Leadership

Definition: Leadership based on a leader’s personal charm and influence.

Example: A startup founder who inspires employees through vision and energy may be seen as a charismatic leader.

Coalition

Definition: A temporary alliance of individuals or groups to achieve a common goal.

Example: Department heads forming a coalition to push for budget increases.

Coercive Power

Definition: Power that comes from the ability to punish or control.

Example: A manager threatening demotion for missed deadlines is using coercive power.

Decision Making

Definition: The process of selecting one option from a set of alternatives.

Example: A manager deciding which candidate to hire from a pool of applicants.

Decision-Making Process

Definition: A series of steps used to make choices, including identifying problems, evaluating alternatives, and implementing solutions.

Example: A team uses the decision-making process to choose between launching a new product or expanding an existing one.

Decision Tree Approach

Definition: A diagramming method used to evaluate decisions and possible consequences.

Example: A marketing manager uses a decision tree to weigh the risks and benefits of launching a new ad campaign.

Employee-Focused Leader Behavior

Definition: Leadership that emphasizes employee satisfaction, motivation, and well-being.

Example: A manager who encourages personal growth and listens to employee concerns is employee-focused.

Escalation of Commitment

Definition: Continuing to invest in a decision despite evidence it’s failing.

Example: A company pours money into a failing product launch, refusing to cancel it due to previous investments.

Ethical Leadership

Definition: Leading based on ethical principles and fairness.

Example: A CEO who ensures transparency and fairness in promotions practices ethical leadership.

Expert Power

Definition: Influence derived from a leader’s knowledge or expertise.

Example: An IT manager respected for their deep knowledge of cybersecurity wields expert power.

Intuition

Definition: Making decisions based on instinct and experience rather than formal analysis.

Example: A seasoned executive chooses to delay a merger because it “feels wrong,” relying on intuition.

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model

Definition: A theory focusing on the quality of relationships between leaders and individual employees.

Example: A supervisor who gives more autonomy and opportunities to trusted employees has developed high-quality LMX relationships.

Leadership

Definition: The ability to influence others toward achieving goals.

Example: A project manager who rallies the team to meet a tight deadline is demonstrating leadership.

Leadership Neutralizers

Definition: Factors that reduce or eliminate the effect of a leader’s behavior.

Example: Highly experienced employees who don’t need guidance can neutralize the impact of a hands-on leader.

Leadership Substitutes

Definition: Aspects of the work environment or team that make leadership unnecessary.

Example: A self-managed team of engineers working independently may not need direct leadership.

Legitimate Power

Definition: Power granted through the organizational structure or position.

Example: A department head who assigns work based on their role uses legitimate power.

Nonprogrammed Decision

Definition: A new, unique decision that requires custom solutions.

Example: Choosing to expand operations into a foreign market for the first time is a nonprogrammed decision.

Path-Goal Theory

Definition: A leadership theory that suggests leaders adapt their behavior to help followers reach their goals.

Example: A manager who gives extra support and removes obstacles to help a struggling employee complete a project is using path-goal theory.

Power

Definition: The ability to affect the behavior of others.

Example: A CEO can direct company strategy due to their formal power.

Programmed Decision

Definition: A routine decision that follows established rules or procedures.

Example: Reordering office supplies when inventory runs low is a programmed decision.

Referent Power

Definition: Power based on charisma or personal appeal.

Example: An admired team leader who motivates others simply through their personality holds referent power.

Reward Power

Definition: Power that comes from the ability to give rewards.

Example: A supervisor who gives bonuses or promotions uses reward power.

Risk Propensity

Definition: The tendency to take or avoid risks when making decisions.

Example: A product manager who tries an untested marketing strategy has high risk propensity.

Situational Approach to Leadership

Definition: The idea that effective leadership depends on the situation and the followers’ needs.

Example: A leader may be directive during a crisis but participative when brainstorming ideas with experienced staff.

State of Certainty

Definition: A condition in which decision-makers know the outcomes of each option.

Example: Choosing between two vendors with fixed pricing and guaranteed delivery timelines reflects a state of certainty.

State of Risk

Definition: A condition where decision-makers can estimate the likelihood of outcomes.

Example: A company launching a new product based on market research predictions is operating in a state of risk.