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Liberalism

Opposed hierarchy; emphasized freedom, political rights, social contract, and individualism. Philosophers: Adam Smith, John Locke, John Stuart Mill.

Romanticism

Reaction against Enlightenment; valued emotion, nature, history, and national pride. Figures: Rousseau, Wordsworth, Monet, Schelling, Madame de Staël.

Conservatism

Reaction to French Revolution; favored tradition, monarchy, slow change, legitimacy, and balance of power. Thinkers: Edmund Burke, Thomas Hobbes, Benjamin Disraeli.

Democratic Socialism

Advocated economic equality, collective ownership of major industries, social welfare, and equal rights. Figures: Eugene Debs, Charles Fourier, Louis Blanc, Sidney Webb.

Anarchism

Rejected authority and organized religion; supported self-governance and revolutionary action. Influenced by Friedrich Nietzsche.

Reactionary

Wanted to reverse revolutionary changes, restore monarchies, and idealize serfdom. Figures: Metternich, Charles X.

Nationalism

Belief that people with shared language, culture, and history should form one nation. Figures: Giuseppe Mazzini, Otto von Bismarck, John L. O’Sullivan.

Radicalism

Sought rapid change for economic and civil equality; redistribution of wealth; social safety nets. Figures: Thomas Paine, Robespierre, Jeremy Bentham, Jean Jaurès.

Industrial Revolution

Period of technological, economic, and social change; introduction of factories, mechanized farming, and urbanization.

Jethro Tull

Invented the seed drill to increase farming efficiency.

James Watt

Improved the steam engine; powered factories and transportation.

Richard Arkwright

Invented the water frame for mechanized spinning in textiles.

Textiles

First major industry of Industrial Revolution; mechanization increased production.

Enclosure Acts

Consolidated farmland, displaced small farmers, increased efficiency.

Crop Rotation

Rotating crops to improve soil fertility during Agricultural Revolution.

Corn Laws

Tariffs protecting British agriculture; repealed mid-1800s to allow free trade.

Factory Conditions

Dangerous, low-paid, long hours; included child labor and poor sanitation.

Morse Code

Communication innovation improving long-distance messaging.

Factors of Production

Land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship necessary for industrial economy.

Raw Materials

Resources like cotton, coal, and iron needed for industrial production.

Positives of Industrial Revolution

Better pay, improved food, heat in homes, cooked meats, middle-class wealth, improved communication.

Negatives of Industrial Revolution

Hard city life, dirty factories, poor wages, child labor, lower life expectancy, lack of healthcare.

Old Imperialism

1500–1700s; focused on trade, colonies, mercantilism; Spain, Portugal, England, France, Netherlands.

New Imperialism

1870s–1914; industrial nations sought raw materials, markets, and prestige; direct political control; Scramble for Africa and Asia.

British Administration of Colonies

Varied: direct rule, indirect rule, or protectorates depending on region.

Causes of New Imperialism

Industrialization, nationalism, social Darwinism, economic and political competition.

Independent African Countries

Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent during European colonization.

Reasons Europeans in Africa

Economic gain (resources), political power, Christian missionary work, prestige.

Queen Victoria

British Empress; symbol of empire.

Prince Albert

Promoted culture, science, and modernization with Victoria.

David Livingstone

Explorer and missionary; anti-slavery advocate in Africa.

Henry M. Stanley

Explorer; mapped African rivers, helped establish European control.

Cecil Rhodes

British imperialist in South Africa; promoted empire expansion.

King Leopold II

King of Belgium; exploited Congo Free State for profit and brutality.

Matthew Perry

US Commodore; forced Japan to open trade (1853–1854).

Benjamin Disraeli

British Prime Minister; supported empire expansion.

Joseph Chamberlain

British politician; advocated overseas expansion.

Lin Zexu

Chinese official; attempted to stop opium trade → led to Opium War.

William Gladstone

British Prime Minister; opposed some imperial policies, liberal reforms.

Rudyard Kipling

Author of “White Man’s Burden,” promoting imperialist ideology.

Berlin Conference 1884-1885

European powers divided Africa with little regard for local populations.

The Sun Never Sets…

Refers to the vast British Empire across the globe.

Japan and China Response

Spheres of influence; limited modernization; resistance to European imperialism.

Opium War (1839–1842)

Trade war between Britain and China over opium; Qing defeat.

Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864)

Massive Chinese civil war against Qing dynasty; millions died.

Kuomintang

Chinese nationalist party formed to unify and modernize China.

Crimean War (1853–1856)

Russia vs Ottoman Empire, Britain, France; balance of power conflict.

Commonwealth

Political association of nations, especially former British Empire.

Balance of Power

European nations maintained equilibrium to prevent dominance of one power.

African Society at Start of New Imperialism

Varied; many independent kingdoms like Zulu; complex social structures.

Zulu

Powerful African kingdom resisting British and Dutch colonization.

White Man’s Burden

Ideology that Europeans had a duty to civilize colonized peoples.

Social Darwinism

Applied “survival of the fittest” to justify imperialism and racism.

East India Company Problems

Conflict with Indian culture, religion, and local governance; led to Sepoy Rebellion.

Nationalism as Cause of Imperialism

Competition among nations; desire for prestige, unification, and power.

Economic Reasons for Imperialism

Access raw materials, markets, labor for industrial economies.

Political Reasons for Imperialism

Strengthen national prestige, strategic territory, military bases.

Social-Cultural Reasons for Imperialism

Spread religion, civilization, cultural superiority.

Three Cs of Imperialism

Commerce, Christianity, Civilization.

Three Gs of Imperialism

Gold, God, Glory.

Benefits of Imperialism

Infrastructure, railroads, communication, healthcare, modernization.

Problems with Imperialism

Exploitation, slavery, cultural destruction, resistance, inequality.

Nigeria

Ethnic diversity; European rule created tensions.

Extraterritoriality

Foreigners exempt from local law in China.

Meiji Restoration (1868)

Japan modernizes, industrializes, and becomes imperial power.

Sepoy Rebellion (1857)

Uprising of Indian soldiers against British East India Company; led to British Raj.

Boer War (1899–1902)

Britain vs Dutch settlers over South African territory and resources.

Significance of Mini-Ice Age

Cooler climate (1600s–1700s) affected agriculture and population.

Agricultural Revolution

Innovations in farming, crop rotation, enclosure acts; boosted food production.

Water Frame

Machine for spinning cotton; mechanized textile production.

Revolution of 1830

Overthrow of Charles X; rise of Louis Philippe as “Citizen King.”

1848 Revolutions

Widespread European revolts for liberal constitutions, nationalism, and social reforms.

June Days

Workers’ uprising in France after 1848 Revolution; suppressed violently.

Barricade

Street fortifications used by revolutionaries.

Kleindeutsch vs Grossdeutsch

German unification debate: “small Germany” without Austria vs “large Germany” with Austria.

Schleswig & Holstein

Prussian-Austrian conflict over these territories; part of German unification wars.

Alsace & Lorraine

Regions lost by France to Germany after Franco-Prussian War; fueled resentment.

Otto von Bismarck

Prussian Chancellor; used Realpolitik, wars, and diplomacy to unify Germany.

Paris Commune (1871)

Short-lived revolutionary government in Paris after Franco-Prussian War.

Napoleon III

Emperor of France (1852–1870); modernization and foreign policies.

Kaiser Wilhelm I

First Emperor of unified Germany.

Franz Joseph

Emperor of Austria-Hungary; resisted nationalism, conservative ruler.

Congress of Vienna (1815)

Restore Europe’s balance after Napoleon; led by Metternich.

Metternich

Austrian diplomat; architect of Congress of Vienna and Concert of Europe.

Concert of Europe

Alliance system to maintain peace and suppress revolutions in 19th century Europe.

Louis XVIII

King of France restored after Napoleon; moderate conservative.

Charles X

Reactionary king of France; overthrown in 1830 Revolution.

Pierre Joseph Proudhon

Anarchist thinker; challenged property and authority.

Louis Blanc

Socialist thinker; advocated social workshops and government role in economy.

Karl Marx

Socialist and communist thinker; co-author of Communist Manifesto.

Louis Philippe

Citizen King of France after 1830 Revolution.

Textiles (duplicate) First major industry of Industrial Revolution; mechanized production.

Factors of Production

Different elements required for industrial economy: land, labor, capital, entrepreneurship.