biolegy

Lactose Intolerance

Inability to digest lactose due to lactase decline.

Lactase

Enzyme that breaks down lactose into absorbable sugars.

Genetic Mutation

Change in DNA allowing lactose digestion in adults.

Organic Compounds

Molecules primarily made of carbon and hydrogen.

Covalent Bonds

Chemical bonds formed by sharing electron pairs.

Methane (CH4)

Simple hydrocarbon illustrating carbon's bonding capabilities.

Carbon Skeleton

Framework of carbon atoms in organic molecules.

Isomers

Compounds with the same formula but different structures.

Hydrocarbons

Compounds composed solely of carbon and hydrogen.

Functional Groups

Groups that determine the properties of organic compounds.

Hydroxyl Group

Functional group consisting of -OH, forming alcohols.

Carbonyl Group

Functional group with a carbon double-bonded to oxygen.

Carboxyl Group

Functional group that can act as an acid.

Amino Group

Functional group that can act as a base.

Phosphate Group

Functional group involved in energy transfers, like ATP.

Methyl Group

Nonpolar group influencing molecular shape and function.

Macromolecules

Large molecules including carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids.

Polymers

Long molecules formed from repeating monomer units.

Monomers

Small building blocks that make up polymers.

Dehydration Reaction

Process forming polymers by removing water.

Hydrolysis

Process breaking down polymers by adding water.

Enzymes

Specialized macromolecules facilitating biochemical reactions.

Amino Acids

Building blocks of proteins containing amino and carboxyl groups.

Nucleotides

Building blocks of DNA composed of four types.

Chemical Groups

Atoms attached to carbon skeleton altering compound properties.

Testosterone

Male hormone differing from estradiol by chemical groups.

Estradiol

Female hormone differing from testosterone by chemical groups.

Carbon Bonds

Bonds allowing carbon to form diverse molecular shapes.

Complex Molecules

Molecules with intricate structures crucial for function.

Monosaccharides

Simplest carbohydrates, serving as monomers for polysaccharides.

Glucose

Essential monosaccharide with formula C6H12O6.

Fructose

Sweeter isomer of glucose, also C6H12O6.

Hexoses

Monosaccharides with six carbon atoms.

Pentoses

Monosaccharides with five carbon atoms.

Ring Structure

Common form of monosaccharides in aqueous solutions.

Disaccharides

Two monosaccharides linked by dehydration reactions.

Maltose

Disaccharide formed from two glucose monomers.

Sucrose

Common disaccharide of glucose and fructose.

Lactose

Disaccharide in milk, formed from glucose and galactose.

Polysaccharides

Long chains of monosaccharides for energy storage.

Starch

Plant storage polysaccharide made of glucose chains.

Glycogen

Animal storage polysaccharide, more branched than starch.

Cellulose

Structural polysaccharide in plant cell walls.

Energy Source

Role of monosaccharides like glucose in cells.

Sugar Consumption

Average American consumes 22 teaspoons daily.

WHO Sugar Recommendation

5% of daily calories from sugar, ~6 teaspoons.

FDA Sugar Limit

Maximum of 12 teaspoons of added sugar daily.

Empty Calories

Calories from added sugars lacking essential nutrients.

Obesity Rates

36.5% in U.S. adults linked to high sugar intake.

Cardiovascular Disease

Health risk associated with high sugar consumption.

Nutrition Labels

Proposed changes to include added sugars information.

Sugar Sources

Commonly added to foods like coffee and desserts.

Microfibrils

Cable-like structures formed by cellulose molecules.

Insoluble Fiber

Non-digestible cellulose aiding digestive health.

Chitin

Structural polysaccharide in insect exoskeletons and fungi.

Hydrophilic

Water-attracting property of carbohydrates.

Lipids

Diverse hydrophobic molecules not polymerized from monomers.

Fats

Large lipids composed of glycerol and fatty acids.

Glycerol

Three-carbon alcohol with hydroxyl groups.

Fatty Acids

Carboxyl group with hydrocarbon chain, energy sources.

Triglyceride

Fat formed from three fatty acids linked to glycerol.

Unsaturated Fatty Acid

Fatty acid with one or more double bonds.

Saturated Fatty Acid

Fatty acid with no double bonds, solid at room temperature.

Trans Fats

Hydrogenated unsaturated fats linked to health risks.

Adipose Cells

Store long-term energy reserves in the body.

Hydrogenation

Process of adding hydrogen to unsaturated fats.

Nurses' Health Study

Prospective study assessing fat intake and heart disease.

Relative Risk

Measure of association between fat intake and heart disease.

Phospholipids

Molecules with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.

Cell Membrane

Double-layered structure formed by phospholipids.

Steroids

Lipids with a carbon skeleton of four fused rings.

Hydrophobic

Water-repelling property of lipids.

Kinks in Fatty Acids

Bends caused by double bonds, affecting fat properties.

Energy Storage

Primary function of fats, storing more than carbohydrates.

Digestive Health

Benefit of insoluble fiber from cellulose.

Microorganisms

Can hydrolyze cellulose, aiding energy extraction in some animals.

Controlled Feeding Trials

Studies testing diets with different fat types.

Observational Studies

Long-term studies assessing health outcomes related to diets.

Cholesterol

A steroid vital for cell membranes and hormones.

Atherosclerosis

Condition caused by high cholesterol levels in blood.

Phospholipid

Molecule with two fatty acids and a phosphate group.

Fat Molecule

Composed of three fatty acids attached to glycerol.

Anabolic Steroids

Synthetic testosterone variants for muscle growth.

Health Risks of Steroids

Include mood swings, liver damage, and infertility.

Denaturation

Process where proteins lose shape and function.

Lysozyme

Enzyme that destroys bacterial cells via binding.

Peptide Bond

Covalent bond formed between two amino acids.

Dipeptide

Initial product of two amino acids joined together.

Polypeptide

Chain of amino acids, typically over 100 long.

Hydrophobic Amino Acids

Nonpolar R groups that avoid water.

Hydrophilic Amino Acids

R groups that interact with water, can be polar.

R Group

Variable group defining amino acid properties.

Collagen

Structural protein forming strong connective tissue fibers.

Fibrous Proteins

Long, strong proteins providing structural support.

Contractile Proteins

Proteins in muscle cells enabling contraction.

Transport Proteins

Move nutrients and sugars into cells.

Defensive Proteins

Antibodies that protect the body from pathogens.

Signal Proteins

Hormones coordinating body activities through messages.

Receptor Proteins

Receive signals and transmit them into cells.

Misfolded Proteins

Incorrectly folded proteins linked to diseases.