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Lactose Intolerance
Inability to digest lactose due to lactase decline.
Lactase
Enzyme that breaks down lactose into absorbable sugars.
Genetic Mutation
Change in DNA allowing lactose digestion in adults.
Organic Compounds
Molecules primarily made of carbon and hydrogen.
Covalent Bonds
Chemical bonds formed by sharing electron pairs.
Methane (CH4)
Simple hydrocarbon illustrating carbon's bonding capabilities.
Carbon Skeleton
Framework of carbon atoms in organic molecules.
Isomers
Compounds with the same formula but different structures.
Hydrocarbons
Compounds composed solely of carbon and hydrogen.
Functional Groups
Groups that determine the properties of organic compounds.
Hydroxyl Group
Functional group consisting of -OH, forming alcohols.
Carbonyl Group
Functional group with a carbon double-bonded to oxygen.
Carboxyl Group
Functional group that can act as an acid.
Amino Group
Functional group that can act as a base.
Phosphate Group
Functional group involved in energy transfers, like ATP.
Methyl Group
Nonpolar group influencing molecular shape and function.
Macromolecules
Large molecules including carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids.
Polymers
Long molecules formed from repeating monomer units.
Monomers
Small building blocks that make up polymers.
Dehydration Reaction
Process forming polymers by removing water.
Hydrolysis
Process breaking down polymers by adding water.
Enzymes
Specialized macromolecules facilitating biochemical reactions.
Amino Acids
Building blocks of proteins containing amino and carboxyl groups.
Nucleotides
Building blocks of DNA composed of four types.
Chemical Groups
Atoms attached to carbon skeleton altering compound properties.
Testosterone
Male hormone differing from estradiol by chemical groups.
Estradiol
Female hormone differing from testosterone by chemical groups.
Carbon Bonds
Bonds allowing carbon to form diverse molecular shapes.
Complex Molecules
Molecules with intricate structures crucial for function.
Monosaccharides
Simplest carbohydrates, serving as monomers for polysaccharides.
Glucose
Essential monosaccharide with formula C6H12O6.
Fructose
Sweeter isomer of glucose, also C6H12O6.
Hexoses
Monosaccharides with six carbon atoms.
Pentoses
Monosaccharides with five carbon atoms.
Ring Structure
Common form of monosaccharides in aqueous solutions.
Disaccharides
Two monosaccharides linked by dehydration reactions.
Maltose
Disaccharide formed from two glucose monomers.
Sucrose
Common disaccharide of glucose and fructose.
Lactose
Disaccharide in milk, formed from glucose and galactose.
Polysaccharides
Long chains of monosaccharides for energy storage.
Starch
Plant storage polysaccharide made of glucose chains.
Glycogen
Animal storage polysaccharide, more branched than starch.
Cellulose
Structural polysaccharide in plant cell walls.
Energy Source
Role of monosaccharides like glucose in cells.
Sugar Consumption
Average American consumes 22 teaspoons daily.
WHO Sugar Recommendation
5% of daily calories from sugar, ~6 teaspoons.
FDA Sugar Limit
Maximum of 12 teaspoons of added sugar daily.
Empty Calories
Calories from added sugars lacking essential nutrients.
Obesity Rates
36.5% in U.S. adults linked to high sugar intake.
Cardiovascular Disease
Health risk associated with high sugar consumption.
Nutrition Labels
Proposed changes to include added sugars information.
Sugar Sources
Commonly added to foods like coffee and desserts.
Microfibrils
Cable-like structures formed by cellulose molecules.
Insoluble Fiber
Non-digestible cellulose aiding digestive health.
Chitin
Structural polysaccharide in insect exoskeletons and fungi.
Hydrophilic
Water-attracting property of carbohydrates.
Lipids
Diverse hydrophobic molecules not polymerized from monomers.
Fats
Large lipids composed of glycerol and fatty acids.
Glycerol
Three-carbon alcohol with hydroxyl groups.
Fatty Acids
Carboxyl group with hydrocarbon chain, energy sources.
Triglyceride
Fat formed from three fatty acids linked to glycerol.
Unsaturated Fatty Acid
Fatty acid with one or more double bonds.
Saturated Fatty Acid
Fatty acid with no double bonds, solid at room temperature.
Trans Fats
Hydrogenated unsaturated fats linked to health risks.
Adipose Cells
Store long-term energy reserves in the body.
Hydrogenation
Process of adding hydrogen to unsaturated fats.
Nurses' Health Study
Prospective study assessing fat intake and heart disease.
Relative Risk
Measure of association between fat intake and heart disease.
Phospholipids
Molecules with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.
Cell Membrane
Double-layered structure formed by phospholipids.
Steroids
Lipids with a carbon skeleton of four fused rings.
Hydrophobic
Water-repelling property of lipids.
Kinks in Fatty Acids
Bends caused by double bonds, affecting fat properties.
Energy Storage
Primary function of fats, storing more than carbohydrates.
Digestive Health
Benefit of insoluble fiber from cellulose.
Microorganisms
Can hydrolyze cellulose, aiding energy extraction in some animals.
Controlled Feeding Trials
Studies testing diets with different fat types.
Observational Studies
Long-term studies assessing health outcomes related to diets.
Cholesterol
A steroid vital for cell membranes and hormones.
Atherosclerosis
Condition caused by high cholesterol levels in blood.
Phospholipid
Molecule with two fatty acids and a phosphate group.
Fat Molecule
Composed of three fatty acids attached to glycerol.
Anabolic Steroids
Synthetic testosterone variants for muscle growth.
Health Risks of Steroids
Include mood swings, liver damage, and infertility.
Denaturation
Process where proteins lose shape and function.
Lysozyme
Enzyme that destroys bacterial cells via binding.
Peptide Bond
Covalent bond formed between two amino acids.
Dipeptide
Initial product of two amino acids joined together.
Polypeptide
Chain of amino acids, typically over 100 long.
Hydrophobic Amino Acids
Nonpolar R groups that avoid water.
Hydrophilic Amino Acids
R groups that interact with water, can be polar.
R Group
Variable group defining amino acid properties.
Collagen
Structural protein forming strong connective tissue fibers.
Fibrous Proteins
Long, strong proteins providing structural support.
Contractile Proteins
Proteins in muscle cells enabling contraction.
Transport Proteins
Move nutrients and sugars into cells.
Defensive Proteins
Antibodies that protect the body from pathogens.
Signal Proteins
Hormones coordinating body activities through messages.
Receptor Proteins
Receive signals and transmit them into cells.
Misfolded Proteins
Incorrectly folded proteins linked to diseases.
