Ap Psychology Cognition

Bottom-up processing

Perception driven by incoming sensory data from the environment.

Top-down processing

Perception influenced by prior knowledge, expectations, and experiences.

Sensory adaptation

A decrease in sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time.

Habituation

A decline in behavioral response after repeated exposure to the same stimulus (brain-level).

Selective attention

Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus while ignoring others.

Cocktail party effect

The ability to pick out one’s own name or a key word in a noisy environment.

Inattentional blindness

Failure to notice a fully visible but unexpected object because attention is elsewhere.

Change blindness

Not detecting changes in a scene due to a shift in attention.

Schema

A mental framework that organizes and interprets information.

Perceptual set

A predisposition to perceive things in a certain way based on expectations.

Biological influences on perception

Sensory receptor function, neural processing, and critical periods.

Psychological influences on perception

Attention, emotions, learned schemas, and expectations.

Social-cultural influences on perception

Cultural norms, context, and social expectations.

Gestalt principle: Proximity

We group objects that are close to each other.

Gestalt principle: Similarity

We group together figures that are alike.

Gestalt principle: Continuity

We perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than disjointed ones.

Gestalt principle: Connectedness

We perceive linked or uniform elements as a single unit.

Gestalt principle: Closure

We fill in gaps to see complete figures.

Binocular depth cue: Retinal disparity

Differences between the images on each retina give depth information.

Binocular depth cue: Convergence

The inward angle of the eyes signals depth as objects approach.

Monocular cue: Relative clarity

Hazy objects appear farther away than sharp, clear ones.

Monocular cue: Relative size

Larger retinal images are perceived as closer.

Monocular cue: Texture gradient

Denser, finer textures signal greater distance.

Monocular cue: Linear perspective

Parallel lines appear to converge with distance.

Monocular cue: Interposition

Overlapping objects—covered ones are seen as farther away.

Size constancy

Perceiving an object as the same size despite changes in retinal image size.

Shape constancy

Perceiving an object’s shape as constant even when viewed from different angles.

Color constancy

Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color under varying light.

Brightness constancy

Perceiving an object as equally bright under different lighting.

Müller-Lyer illusion

Two equal-length lines appear unequal because of arrow-tail cues.

Ponzo illusion

Two identical lines appear different in length against converging lines.

Ames room

Distorted room that makes people appear to grow or shrink as they move.

Stroboscopic motion

The illusion of movement created by a rapid series of still images.

Phi phenomenon

The perception of movement created by alternating flashing lights.

Cognition

The mental processes involved in acquiring, storing, and using knowledge.

Concept

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, or ideas.

Prototype

The best example or mental image of a category.

Assimilation

Interpreting new information in terms of existing schemas.

Accommodation

Adjusting schemas to incorporate new information.

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut or “rule of thumb” for quicker, but error-prone, decisions.

Availability heuristic

Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind.

Representativeness heuristic

Judging probability by how well something matches a prototype.

Fixation

The inability to see a problem from a new perspective.

Mental set

Approaching a problem using a strategy that worked before.

Functional fixedness

Seeing objects only in their usual functions.

Insight

A sudden “aha!” realization of a problem’s solution.

Framing

The way information is presented affects decisions and judgments.

Priming

The activation of particular associations in memory, influencing responses.

Gambler’s fallacy

The belief that past random events affect future ones.

Sunk-cost fallacy

Continuing a behavior because of previously invested resources.

Executive functions

Cognitive processes for planning, decision-making, and goal management.

Convergent thinking

Seeking a single, correct solution to a problem.

Divergent thinking

Creating many unique solutions to a problem.

Lateral thinking

Solving problems through indirect and creative approaches.

Overconfidence

Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments.

Hindsight bias

The “I-knew-it-all-along” effect after learning an outcome.

Flashbulb memory

A highly detailed, vivid memory of an emotionally significant event.

Explicit memory

Conscious recollection of facts and experiences.

Episodic memory

Memory of personally experienced events.

Semantic memory

Memory of general knowledge and facts.

Implicit memory

Unconscious memory of skills and procedures.

Procedural memory

Memory for motor and cognitive skills (e.g., riding a bike).

Prospective memory

Remembering to perform planned actions in the future.

Long-term potentiation

Strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity.

Sensory memory

Initial, brief storage of sensory information (iconic & echoic).

Iconic memory

Brief visual sensory memory (lasting ~¼ second).

Echoic memory

Brief auditory sensory memory (lasting 3–4 seconds).

Short-term memory

Temporary storage holding a few items briefly (~20 seconds).

Working memory

Active processing system that keeps information available.

Baddeley’s phonological loop

Component of working memory for verbal/auditory information.

Baddeley’s visuospatial sketchpad

Component of working memory for visual and spatial data.

Baddeley’s central executive

Part of working memory that directs attention and processing.

Baddeley’s episodic buffer

Integrates information across domains and links to long-term memory.

Long-term memory

Enduring storage of information with virtually unlimited capacity.

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information (space, time, frequency).

Effortful processing

Encoding requiring attention and conscious effort.

Mnemonic device

A strategy or trick (e.g., acronym, rhyme) to improve memory.

Method of loci

Mnemonic linking items to familiar spatial locations.

Chunking

Group­ing information into meaningful units to aid memory.

Spacing effect

Distributed practice leads to better long-term retention.

Serial position effect

Better recall for items at beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a list.

Levels of processing model

Memory depends on depth of processing: structural, phonemic, semantic.

Self-reference effect

Better recall when information is related to oneself.

Next-in-line effect

Poor recall for information presented just before one’s turn to perform.

Overlearning

Continuing to study beyond mastery to strengthen retention.

Term

Definition

Sensory memory

Initial, very brief storage of sensory information.

Iconic memory

Visual sensory memory; large capacity, lasts ~½ second.

Echoic memory

Auditory sensory memory; lasts 3–4 seconds.

Haptic memory

Tactile sensory memory; lasts ~2 seconds.

Olfactory memory

Smell sensory memory; strong emotional associations.

Gustatory memory

Taste sensory memory; linked to olfaction, emotion.

Short-term memory (STM)

Temporary storage for ~15–30 seconds; capacity ~7±2 items.

Working memory

Active processing of information; duration ~10–15 seconds unless rehearsed.

Long-term memory (LTM)

Enduring storage, possibly lifelong; virtually unlimited capacity.

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it in STM/WM.

Elaborative rehearsal

Encoding by linking new info to existing knowledge for LTM.

Highly superior autobiographical memory

Exceptional ability to recall personal life events.

Autobiographical memory

Memory for personal life events; self-relevant.