AP Psychology Unit 0

A complete set of vocabulary flashcards based on AP Psychology Unit 0, covering definitions for psychological research methods, statistical measures, and ethical guidelines.

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

mental processes

The thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately but that cannot be observed directly

Behavior

observable actions of human beings and nonhuman animals

Confirmation Bias

a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions

hindsight bias

"I knew it all along" phenomenon

overconfidence bias

people's subjective confidence in their decision making is greater than their objective accuracy

empirical evidence

scientific evidence obtained by careful observation and experimentation

Scientific Method

A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Falsifiable

a hypothesis that can be proven false

Peer Review

A process by which the procedures and results of an experiment are evaluated by other scientists who are in the same field or who are conducting similar research.

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Reliability

Ability of a test to yield very similar scores for the same individual over repeated testings

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

American Psychological Association (APA)

professional organization representing psychologists in the United States

research design

An overall plan for obtaining the information needed to address a research problem or issue

methodology

A system of practices, techniques, procedures, and rules used by those who work in a discipline.

Quantitative data

numbers-based information gathered from surveys, tests, or experiments.

Qualitative Data

Information collected through methods like interviews or observations, focusing on people's experiences and behaviors.

Likert scales

questionnaires that require individuals to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement with a set of statements

structured interviews

interviews in which all applicants are asked the same set of standardized questions, usually including situational, behavioral, background questions

Surveys

collect data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire

wording effect

wording can change the results of a survey

social desirability bias

A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.

naturalistic observation

watching behavior in real-world settings without trying to manipulate the situation

case study

study of one individual in great detail

cultural norms

behavior patterns that are typical of specific groups

Correlation

A measure of the relationship between two variables

positive correlation

A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction.

negative correlation

the relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other variable decreases

correlation coefficient

a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

meta-analysis

a "study of studies" that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

confounding variable

a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

representative sample

a sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole

convenience sampling

choosing individuals who are easiest to reach

Generalizing

the ability to apply the findings of a particular research project to larger segments of society

experimental group

the group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested

control group

the group that does not receive the experimental treatment.

placebo

a fake drug used in the testing of medication

placebo effect

the phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior

single-blind study

study in which the subjects do not know if they are in the experimental or the control group

double-blind study

An experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo

experimenter bias

a phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained

central tendency

a measure that represents the typical response or the behavior of a group as a whole

Mean

average

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Mode

The value that occurs most frequently in a given data set.

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

normal curve (normal distribution)

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about $68\%$ fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

bimodal distribution

a distribution with two modes

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extremes of unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables

effect size

a measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables or the extent of an experimental effect

third variable problem

A problem that occurs when the researcher cannot directly manipulate variables; as a result, the researcher cannot be confident that another, unmeasured variable is not the actual cause of differences in the variables of interest.

directionality problem

a problem encountered in correlational studies; the researchers find a relationship between two variables, but they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable

institutional review

process of examining studies for ethical concerns by a committee of peers

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Informed Assent

Participant's agreement to participate in the absence of full understanding; commonly applies to individuals who have not attained legal majority and/or capacity

Protection from harm

During a research study, participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects, such as physical injury, lowered self-esteem, or embarrassment

Confidentiality

the assurance that information and identity are available only to those who are authorized to view them

deception

misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants