FINAL EXAM

Modifiable Risk Factors

Risk factors that can be changed or controlled to reduce disease risk.

Example of Modifiable Risk Factor

Quitting smoking reduces the risk of lung cancer.

Non-Modifiable Risk Factors

Risk factors that cannot be changed.

Example of Non-Modifiable Risk Factor

Having a family history of heart disease increases risk.

Signs

Objective evidence of disease observed by others.

Example of a Sign

Fever during an infection.

Symptoms

Subjective experiences reported by the patient.

Example of a Symptom

Nausea in gastroenteritis.

Exacerbation

Worsening of a disease or symptoms.

Example of Exacerbation

Asthma attack after pollen exposure.

Remission

Period during which symptoms of a chronic disease decrease or disappear.

Example of Remission

Cancer showing no detectable tumor after chemotherapy.

Morbidity

Disease impact on function or quality of life.

Example of Morbidity

Disability after stroke.

Mortality

Rate of death associated with a disease.

Example of Mortality

Untreated sepsis can result in death.

Prognosis

Predicted outcome of a disease.

Example of Prognosis

Early-stage breast cancer has a good prognosis after surgery.

Atrophy

Decrease in cell size.

Example of Atrophy

Muscle wasting after limb immobilization.

Hypertrophy

Increase in cell size.

Example of Hypertrophy

Enlarged left ventricle from chronic high blood pressure.

Hyperplasia

Increase in cell number.

Example of Hyperplasia

Thickened uterine lining during menstrual cycle.

Metaplasia

Replacement of one mature cell type with another.

Example of Metaplasia

Bronchial epithelium changes to squamous cells in smokers.

Dysplasia

Disorganized or abnormal cell growth, often precancerous.

Example of Dysplasia

Cervical dysplasia on a Pap smear.

Benign Tumors

Noncancerous growths that do not invade tissues.

Example of a Benign Tumor

Lipoma on the arm.

Malignant Tumors

Cancerous growths that invade tissues and can metastasize.

Example of a Malignant Tumor

Lung cancer spreading to liver.

Intracellular Electrolytes

Electrolytes primarily located inside cells.

Example of Intracellular Electrolytes

Potassium inside muscle cells.

Extracellular Electrolytes

Electrolytes primarily outside cells.

Example of Extracellular Electrolytes

Sodium in blood plasma.

Edema

Excess fluid in tissues.

Example of Edema

Swollen ankles in heart failure.

Albumin

Blood protein maintaining fluid balance.

Example of Low Albumin

Swelling in liver disease.

Dehydration

Loss of body water and electrolytes.

Example of Dehydration

Dry mucous membranes in a child with diarrhea.

Congenital Disorders

Present at birth.

Example of a Congenital Disorder

Congenital heart defect.

Autosomal Recessive

Two defective genes needed for expression of a trait.

Example of Autosomal Recessive Disorder

Cystic fibrosis.

Autosomal Dominant

One defective gene needed for expression of a trait.

Example of Autosomal Dominant Disorder

Huntington’s disease.

X-Linked Dominant/Recessive

Gene on X chromosome; males often affected.

Example of X-Linked Disorder

Hemophilia A.

Positive Stress

Motivates and improves performance.

Example of Positive Stress

Preparing for an exam.

Negative Stress

Harmful stress that leads to illness.

Example of Negative Stress

Job burnout causing high blood pressure.

Homeostasis

Internal balance maintained by feedback systems.

Example of Homeostasis

Blood sugar regulated by insulin.

Stages of Stress

Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion.

Alarm Stage of Stress

Fight-or-flight response; heart rate rises when startled.

Resistance Stage of Stress

Adaptation phase; elevated blood pressure during ongoing stress.

Exhaustion Stage of Stress

Depletion; chronic stress leading to ulcers or infection.

Acute Inflammatory Response

Local response to injury causing redness, swelling, heat.

Example of Acute Inflammatory Response

Cut finger becomes red and swollen.

Systemic Inflammation

Body-wide response to injury; includes fever and malaise.

Example of Systemic Inflammation

Sepsis.

Agents of Disease

Bacteria, viruses, fungi, helminths.

Example of an Agent of Disease

Streptococcus causing strep throat.

Nonpathogenic Microorganisms

Normal flora; do not cause disease.

Example of Nonpathogenic Microorganism

Skin bacteria.

Pathogens

Microorganisms that cause disease.

Example of a Pathogen

Influenza virus.

Infection Patterns

Sporadic, Endemic, Epidemic, Pandemic.

Sporadic Infection

Occasional cases of a disease.

Example of Sporadic Infection

Tetanus.

Endemic Infection

Regularly present disease in a specific area.

Example of Endemic Infection

Malaria in some countries.

Epidemic Infection

Many cases in one area.

Example of Epidemic Infection

Measles outbreak.

Pandemic Infection

Worldwide outbreak of a disease.

Example of Pandemic Infection

COVID-19.

Chain of Infection

Agent → Reservoir → Portal of exit → Mode of transmission → Portal of entry → Susceptible host.

Example of Chain of Infection

Influenza virus spreads via droplets.

Stages of Illness

Incubation → Prodromal → Acute → Convalescence → Recovery.

Example of Stages of Illness

Chickenpox.

Immunity

Ability to resist disease via immune response.

Natural Active Immunity

Immunity developed after actual infection.

Example of Natural Active Immunity

Recovering from chickenpox gives lifelong immunity.

Artificial Active Immunity

Immunity developed after vaccination.

Example of Artificial Active Immunity

Receiving measles vaccine.

Natural Passive Immunity

Immunity passed from mother to infant.

Example of Natural Passive Immunity

Infant protected from measles for first months.

Artificial Passive Immunity

Immunity gained by injecting antibodies.

Example of Artificial Passive Immunity

Receiving rabies immunoglobulin after exposure.

Impact of Aging on Immunity

Decreased immune response in older adults.

Example of Aging Impact on Immunity

Elderly have higher risk of influenza complications.

Neutrophils

First responders; fight bacteria.

Example of Neutrophils in Action

Acute bacterial infection.

Eosinophils

Combat parasites and mediate allergic reactions.

Example of Eosinophils in Action

Asthma attack.

Basophils

Release histamine; involved in allergic reactions.

Example of Basophils in Action

Anaphylaxis.