lives of african americans after civil war

tenant of american freedom

owning property/land means you arent dependent on anyone else, Land confers power e.g. plantation owners powerful because they have land

issue for african americans land

AAs dont own land - even the land they do own is poor condition, extent to which AAs can act independently and make their own decisions is limited in the south

White ppl actively discouraged from selling land to AAs as that would give them independence, making them harder to control

aa situation in 1865

1865 - the overwhelming majority of AAs are slaves - they are property who have no rights whatsoever. They are owned and receive no protection

aa situation difference in 1877 from 1865

However by 1877, their position had changed as freedmen - AAs as judges, sheriffs, voters (vote in large numbers)

By 1877 they were not being returned to slavery - they had a whole range of rights and social experiences which were completely different to those of slaves, had freedom but not equality

aa attitudes towards their freedom

After emancipation, AA linked their freedom to a deepening sense of patriotism. They gained a new sense of personal responsibility

sea islands eg of aa attitude towards freedom

• In Sea Islands AA given proof that they would work without slavery forcing them to, as early as summer of 1862 had been working for wages. Former slaves wanted to have land of their own, to work in their own farming land.

• General Rufus Saxton had been charged by the War Department to ascertain the readiness for freedom of the former slaves, sent a positive report to Secretary Stanton about the Sea Islands.

trowbridge eg of aa attitude towards freedom

• Another eyewitness John T. Trowbridge who toured the South immediately after the war was also impressed by the former slaves’ willingness to work. He noted how they felt great pride in supporting their families.

• Trowbridge noted that in Memphis out of 16,000 freedmen in June 1865, only 220 were indigent, and these poor were helped by AA communities.

limitations of aa attitude towards freedom

not all former slaves sought work at first since they were waiting to receive the 40 acres and a mule with never came. Others left their home plantations in search of relatives. Many tested whether they were actually their own masters by taking on the open road.

groups helping aa

Nearly 100 privately financed freedmen’s aid societies ready to help. These groups were similar to the Bureau of Refugees and Freedmen’s Bureau.

freedmen’s bureau aid

• set up March 1865 also extended assistance to impoverished whites. It had a health program, distributing a total of some 21 million rations, establishing 40 hospitals, treating nearly half a million cases of illness over its 7 year existence.

• Bureau acted as a legal guardian to freedmen, adjudicating many cases in its own semi military courts. Drafted labour contracts calling for a fair wage, and was empowered to enforce such contracts.

limitations of freedmans bureau aid

bureau failed to promote mutual confidence between AA and whites. The great majority of whites were strongly opposed to the bureau on racial basis and because it was a reminder of the lost war

black codes

• Laws for control of AA passed 1865-66, designed to take the place of the defunct slave codes.

• Were the work of state legislatures under Lincoln/Johnson reconstruction which wanted restoration of southern states to be as quick as possible. By the end of 1865 the 11 former confederate states were function again as states again within the union although congress had not recognised them.

black codes vagrancy laws

in South Carolina the AA farm worker could not leave the premises without permission. Vagrancy laws were common, with Mississippi’s vagrancy laws only applying to AA, who were fined if they had no lawful employment and upon failure to pay the fine would be hired out by the sheriff.

black codes louisiana

A local ordinance in Louisiana required that all AA to be in service of some white or former owner who was to be held responsible for their conduct.

black codes general egs

• The codes forbade AA to join the militia or possess firearms.

• Segregation ideas were being introduced eg in Mississippi AA couldn’t ride in first class passenger cars.

• Codes placed AA at a legal disadvantage, in some instances not permitting them to testify against whites.

black codes advantages

codes granted AA right to own property, make contracts, sue and be sued, to testify in court in cases involving other AA, and to have legal marriages. But still at mercy of whites.

opposition to black codes

• Northerners opposed the Black Codes, seeing it as an effort to establish a modern form of slavery. Even northerners who had been sympathetic to the south began to question the good faith and loyalty of former confederate states.

• Gave republicans a reason to postpone the readmission of Southern states. needed to ensure the ascendancy of their party in South to avoid democrats being voted in.

civil rights act

passed April 1866, extended citizenship to the former slaves and stipulated that discrimination against them were to be tried in federal courts

union/loyal league

Financial political club set up by Republicans during the Civil War known as Union League to keep up morale on the home front

In early 1867 League moved to the South and became known as Loyal League with purpose of AA suffrage.

union/loyal league methods and support

• Met in church or school buildings, held joint social and political gatherings with banquets and barbecues alternating with business sessions devoted to prayer and taking an oath to support the Republican ticket.

• Had the willing cooperation of AA. Many former slaves realised if they wished to become fully free they must do something on their own behalf.

aa wanting to vote 1866

• Before the League had even moved South AA in some counties such as Norfolk, Nashville and Charleston had held conventions expressing their wishes to vote.

education under slavery

Illegal to provide education to slaves. Mostly illiterate.

education for aa 1870s

By the 1870s, many AA going to school - huge drive in the community for education. Much higher literacy rates. Big change in the ability to influence their own lives eg AA teachers meant had more autonomy over education

freedmans bureau impact on education for aa

Freedmen’s Bureau established over 4000 schools, charging no fees and often giving free textbooks. Nearly a quarter of a million former slaves received some sort of education from such efforts.

white supremacy opposition to aa education

Opposed to school activities because they believed AA could not absorb book learning and it fostered social equality.

church under slavery

aa had to attend white churches

churches under reconstruction

during reconstruction established their own churches - example of breaking free, achieving a degree of independence in this area, were connected to larger churches and organisations in North eg American Missionary Association

impact of new aa churches

Churches provided resources for fight for equality eg buildings, finances, communal spaces.

AA preachers not dependent on white employment, paid for by the AA community

family life under slavery

Slavery destroyed family life - split children away from parents - sold them up

aa vision for family under reconstruction

AAs could now envision family lives is a huge change, kind of family they aspire to is the ones they see amongst white ppl - women in the home, men go out to work, kids in school

However, this engenders a degree of difference between the roles of AA women and men - previously had been somewhat equal to each other as slaves but now a clear patriarchal hierarchy.

aa location change supervision

when slaves lived on plantations lived in cabins adjacent to a masters’ cabin so they could be supervised. Now they want to live away from there - AA families live in dispersed areas and are not proximate to white ppl

employment issue aa reconstruction

reliant on white landowners for work.

Eg life of Frederick Douglas, developed high level of skill working in ship yard amongst white people, after reconstruction would want to stop them working here since would give them skills and degree of bargaining power.

Not all white men skilled workers, would create competition for whites and expose idea that some AA enjoy a proficiency that white people don’t. Would give AA a higher standard of living than some white people, would suggest AA are socially equal. Amount of AA in skilled work would fall once slavery ended. Northerners don’t want AA working with them because don’t want to compete for jobs.

aa moving geographically

AA either leave towns and become more ruralised or AA become more marginalised and impoverished since don’t have access to opportunity.

Starts to create feel of more of a caste society, one where AA don’t have opportunity to rise unless they leave. Fair number of AA choose to leave eg into west, north. But not that many leave because they find the same racism wherever they go, also don’t have the means to make that kind of a journey (from deep south especially).

aa new positions

AA held high posts including prosecuting attorney, superintendent of the poor, sheriff, and mayor. However the vast majority of AA officeholders were local officials such as justices of the peace

aa in high state positions eg

• In South Carolina Jonathan J. Wright served for nearly 6 years as associate justice of the state supreme court.

• In Florida, Jonathan C. Gibbs was secretary of state for 4 years and its superintendent of instruction for 2 years.

number of aa congressmen

• From 8 southern states came 22 coloured federal congressmen.

• 13 of the congressmen had been born in slavery, 10 of them had college training, including 5 with college degrees.

support for 15th amendment

AA held ratification ceremonies across the country. The greatest was in Baltimore where in mid-May a parade of some 20,000 AA marched through the downtown streets.

Without the 450,000 votes cast for him in the 1868 election, Grant would have been perilously close to defeat as Seymour polled 300,000 less votes than Grant. The Republicans wanted to protect the AA vote further so passed 15th amendment

sharecropping

Someone rents piece of land and pays rent through what they produce.

Landowners provide tools, seed and land since aa cant afford it. In return AA repay through proceeds of what they earn at end of the season

sharecropping mutual benefits

Lack of money in south in 1865. Both landowners and AA labourers in trouble since no way to earn money and no way to pay people.

Way of managing risk – risk is shared between landowner and AA since both parties taking on degree of risk, both parties would enjoy degree of return in a good year.

sharecropping advantages aa

Attractive system to AA because gives them autonomy, used to be supervised in gangs worked hard under slavery but now in charge and masters of their own working lives, gives AA with families freedom eg to tell wife not to work, children go to school.

aa and gang labour

Absolute anathema to idea of gang labour post 1865 and emancipation, started to annoy northern investors since want return on investment and will invest in south post 1865 for control over supply in cotton and plantations back up and running, want plantation commodities so want AA back to work so want gang labour since most efficient, but AA wont do it. Refusal starts to undermine support amongst businessmen for AA. Would create feelings that AA don’t want to work and convince them that white slaveowners were right all along and natural disposition of AA is not to work, so only way to get them to work is to force them to work.

fall in price of cotton

From 1868 price of cotton starts to fall; even white farmers start growing cotton and amount of cotton produced in south will increase in aftermath of reconstruction because of shift to sharecropping and need for money, perception that cotton can be sold, cotton produced elsewhere eg india

ecological danger with cotton growth

ecological danger; monocultures more susceptible to shock, cotton crop will be decimated in 1915. Dangerous to be overly reliant on one thing.

fall in price of cotton effect on aa

harder for AA to pay back sharecropping loan since amount of money gained at end of season may be less than what they have actually borrowed. Not allowed to leave the property they have obtained through rental contract while in debt to landlord. Therefore stuck there with accumulating debt.

As a result AA have to work harder to make a cotton crop since their land will become less fertile, will become increasingly reliant on their family working particularly children so will see less school and long term will reduce literacy rates. Women have to work too, many in services eg maids to white families.

fall in price of cotton effect on landowners

Hits landowners less harshly since start to change their business model, appreciating that AA need certain things they start opening shops for their tenants where they can obtain these things on credit. AA owe money to landowners, not only rent but indebted to them. Caught in a vice like grip. Landowners buy cotton from AA and tell them what its worth. System which confers autonomy begins to infer less autonomy

peonage

Unfree labour AA fall into, not slavery, but not a state in which AA are free, not somebody’s property but legal obligations they are placed under wrap them up in a network of relations which holds them captive.

aa legal/political rights reconstruction

AA attained legal rights eg 14th amendment ascribing equality under the law, under Reconstruction Act March 1867 AA right to vote was a requirement. Eg delegates elected to state constitutional conventions had to be chosen by an electorate which included AA.

legal equality aa

Legal equality means in de jure, but de facto people are not equal in law.

If you have a legal dispute between sharecropper and landowner not an equal dispute since landowner more money gives them advantage. Although are black sheriffs, jurors, legal council, likely to see them in majority black areas since a better way of keeping order in black community if legal officials themselves black. Not the set up which exists in majority white areas though and where there is a dispute between landowner and sharecropper not a dispute between equals because fundamentally landowner able to force sharecropper to vacate their land. No real legal equality in south.

supreme court cases effecting legal equality of aa

slaughterhouse cases 1873 and cruikshank case 1876 differentiates state citizenship/rights protected by state and rights protected by federal government.

Much of citizenship derives from being citizen of a state. If something like Coalfax massacre happens the federal government not eligible to get involved because a state matter which will be dealt with by state officials under state law. In reality, white supremacists in charge. Fate of AA determined more at local than national level ie state rather than federal level.

issue with aa voting

AA don’t have right to vote, 14th amendment says that if you deny right to vote to people representation in congress will be reduced as a result. So whites make it hard for AA to register to vote.

Have controlled state politics through jerrymandering state areas to suit their interests. Although small in number plantation owners did control state politics. People in power get to draw up constituency boundaries and can build in advantages for themselves.

issue with aa legal/political rights

The total membership in 9 of the constitutional conventions was 712 whites compared to 260 AA.

• There was never a state legislature where AA were in control. In South Carolina where AA political strength was at its greatest, the state senate and governorship was always white.

white opposition to aa rights

• The new state governments were hated by the white masses.

• They were fearful of AA domination, to see former slaves holding high public office and parading in the militia was scary. They thought they were faced with political and social self-preservation.

• Striking at AA would put them in their place and constitute a blow to the North.

evidence of aa being corrupt running govs

• In Mississippi 3 AA officials were indicted on charges of corruption by a local grand jury – this confirmed whites view that Mississippi was under the control of thieving AA.

white supremacist organisations

• White Line organisations sprung up in most of the substantial towns of Mississippi and wanted to reestablish white control of the apparatus of government, and their means was the violent disruption of AA voting.

• White line organisations were in communication with each other and were also in communication with the Democrat Party. Justified their violence with rumours of organised AA revolt, protecting white women from sexual attacks etc

kkk

Ku Klux Klan beginning in 1865 in Tennessee, which had become a highly organised movement across state lines by spring 1867,

The Klan used a variety of techniques including frightening costumes, burning down a home, or corporal punishment such as whipping or lynching. They would also attack white republicans or whites who fraternised with AA.

success of white supremacy groups

• Congress did not furnish any money or machinery to protect AA from intimidation or violence. Charges against Klansmen were difficult to prove as witnesses were afraid to give testimony and juries may be made up of Klansmen or their sympathisers.

• The Klan were most successful from 1868 to 1871. Conservatives were gaining control of state governments starting in 1870 with Virginia and North Carolina. Many white republicans responded by renouncing their party affiliation and becoming democrats.

mississippi delta population demographic

Mississippi delta area alongside Mississippi river that has built up rich soil over centuries, best area to grow cotton. Density of AA living here is high, delta counties overwhelmingly AA in terms of population. White plantation owners in minority there, but very wealthy. Want to protect their wealth, must do so by being in political power ie to avoid taxes.

whites wanting aa to vote

Following redemption, white people in hill country of Mississippi don’t want to see AA voting, but if AA dont vote planters wont be able to control constituency since poor white would take control instead. If AA cant vote planters will lose power, want as many AA voting as possible because would vote for planters since want to hold onto their jobs and plants of land. Poorer people join the Klan and wealthier planters are hostile to the Klan. AA ensure that planters can retain political control of state.

aa voting interests

AA can vote but not in position to vote in their own interests, AA voting in large numbers isn’t proof enjoying political rights. Are AA elected to public office but they too are very often elected with tacit support of white people and represent majority black areas.

1875 civil rights act

Sought to secure equal rights for all citizens at hotels, theatres, and other places of public amusement. Stipulated that no person should be disqualified to sit on juries because of race

limitations of 1875 civil rights act

administration wont enforce this because southerners wont have it. Government building will have equal opportunities but private businesses will be different. Administration reluctant to impose that legally. Distinction between rights as a private individual and rights as federal citizen.

end of 1875 civil rights act

Remained for only 8 years before Supreme Court struck it down.

• AA held indignation meetings, heaping ridicule and invective on the court.

white supremacist success

• Once in power conservatives hastened to minimise the AA vote. They held elections and withheld the location from AA voters, falsely arrested AA the day before the election and released them the day after, they stuffed the ballot box, repeater voting.

• By the spring of 1877 the conservatives were in charge of state governments throughout the south.