AP Psychlogy Unit 2

psychological psychology

the study of behavior as influenced by biology

imaging techniques

allows researchers to map the structure and/or activity of the brain and complete data with behavior

reflexes

quick and involuntary responses to environmental stimuli

electroencephalogram (EEG)

measures subtle changes in brain electrical activity through electrodes placed on the head, not specific

heredity

the passing on of different physical and mental traits from one generation to another

heritability

a mathematical measure to estimate how much variation there is in a population related to genes

reciprocal determinism

the belief that the environment, behavior, and the individual’s beliefs can influence and impact each other

epigenetics

the study of how the environment and a person’s behavior affect their genes and how they work

brain plasticity

the adaptability of the brain to change in response to a person’s experience (this can be done by reorganizing or building new neural pathways)

nervous system

the fast-acting electrochemical communication network that uses neurons and nerve cells to coordinate the activities of the organism

endocrine system

regulates the different biological processes in the body, made up of glands and organs that make hormones and release them into the blood

computerized axial tomography scans (CAT scans)

generates cross-sectional images of the brain using a series of X-ray pictures

magnetic resonance imagery (MRI)

uses powerful electromagnets and radio waves to get 3-dimensional structural information from the brain, gathering “snapshots” but not long-term information

functional magnetic resonance imagery (fMRI)

provides viewing of the brain as it works by rapidly sequencing MRI images

positron emission tomography (PET scans)

provides images via diffusion of radioactive glucose in the brain (since glucose is the fuel of the brain, more glucose in an area indicates more activity)

central nervous system (CNS)

reads incoming messages from the PNS and sends orders to the rest of the body, made up of the brain and spinal cord

spinal cord

a tubular structure of nerves that goes from the base of the brain to the lumbar section of the vertebral columns

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

takes information from the brain and sends it to the rest of your body and picks up information from other parts of the body and sending it back to the brain, made up of the nerves that are outside of the brain and spinal cord

neurons

nerve cells

afferent neurons

neurons that conduct impulses from sense organs TO the brain or spinal cord

efferent neurons

neurons that conduct impulses AWAY from the spinal cord/brain, towards muscles or glands, responsible for movement

somatic nervous system

responsible for voluntary skeletal movement through efferent neurons

sensory receptors

receptor cells in sense organs (eyes, ears, nose) that are sensitive to stimuli

autonomic nervous system

controls non-skeletal or smooth muscles that control involuntary actions

sympathetic nervous system

associated with processes that burn energy and the fight-or-flight response

fight-or-flight reaction

a heightened state of physiological arousal with an increase in heart rate and respiration as well as decrease in digestion and salivation

parasympathetic nervous system

associated with the conservation of energy through rest, repair, and enjoyment

soma

the neuron cell body that houses the nucleus

dendrite

branches from the soma, receives chemical input from adjacent neurons through receptors on its surface then sends it to the axon

axon

long, tube-like structure that carries information away from the soma and into the axon terminal

axon terminal/terminal buttons

knobs on the branched end of the axon, releases information into the synapse

schwann cell/glial cell

wraps around the axon and produces the myelin sheath

myelin sheath

a fatty coating around the axon that insulates electric impulses, protects the axon from damage, speeds up the rate of information travel, makes the sending of action potentials more efficient

nodes of ranvier

the gaps in the myelin sheath, speeds up neural transmission

synapse

the gap between neurons

permeability

the ability for certain ions to cross the cell membrane

action potential/nerve impulse

the message being sent by the neuron through an electrical impulse traveling down the axon, a disturbance in resting potential

synaptic gap/cleft

the space between the axon terminal of the sending neuron and the dendrite/soma of the receiving neuron where the neurotransmitters are released

mirror neurons

neurons in the brain that makes us mirror the action of another or yourself

resting potential

when the neuron has mostly negative ions inside and positive ions outside (-70mV)

leak channels

channels that allow ions to “leak” across the membrane according to their gradient

depolarization

a change in the membrane potential from the resting membrane potential to a less negative/more positive potential

threshold

the minimum intensity of a stimulus that is needed to trigger an action potential (-55mV)

repolarization

the movement of positive ions outside of the membrane after depolarization in order for the cell to return to its resting state (-70mV)

refractory period

a short time when no other action potentials can occur until the axon is back in its resting state

electrical synapse

no space is left between the neurons (neurons are connected)—for messages that need to be sent quickly and immediately

chemical synapse

junctions between two neurons that use neurotransmitters to send neutral signals

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers between neurons

order of an action potential

resting potential, depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization, resting potential

hyperpolarization

the opposite of depolarization, when membrane becomes more negative 

presynaptic terminal

the axon terminal of the neuron transmitting the information, converts the electric signal to a chemical one and sends neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap

postsynaptic terminal

where the neurotransmitters are accepted into the dendrite of the receiving neuron

acetylcholine

neurotransmitter that affects memory, muscle contraction (especially in the heart), and learning---lack of this may lead to Alzheimer’s

dopamine

neurotransmitter that affects movement, attention, reward, emotion, learning---lack of this may lead to Parkinson’s but too much may lead to schizophrenia

serotonin

neurotransmitter that affects arousal, sleep, pain sensitivity, mood, and hunger regulation---lack of this may lead to depression but too much may lead to OCD, anxiety, or headaches

endorphins

neurotransmitter that influences the perception of pain and pleasure, is the body’s natural painkiller---lack of this leads to a low pain tolerance but a lot leads to a high pain tolerance

epinephrine (adrenaline)

neurotransmitter and hormone that helps with the fight-or-flight response by opening airways, increasing heart rate, and redistributing blood to muscles 

norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

neurotransmitter and hormone that helps with the fight-or-flight response by affecting alertness levels and arousal---a lack of this may lead to depression

glutamate

neurotransmitter that is excitatory, helps with long-term memory and learning, is all-purpose and commonly used---too much of this leads to overstimulation and seizures, insomnia, or migraine

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

neurotransmitter that helps with sleep and movement, slows down the nervous system, is inhibitory---a lack of this leads to seizures, tremors, or insomnia

excitatory neurotransmitter

depolarizes the postsynaptic neurons resulting in a greater likelihood of an action potential, may cause neurons to fire

inhibitory neurotransmitter

decreases the likelihood that a neuron will fire an action potential, leads to hyperpolarization, may cause neurons to stop firing

reuptake

when the sending neuron reabsorbs the extra neurotransmitters

enzyme

a substance that breaks down extra neurotransmitters

Broca’s area

an area in the left frontal lobe that is associated with the ability to speak

Wernicke’s area

an area in the left temporal lobe that is associated with interpreting and creating language

Broca’s/expressive aphasia

the inability to speak after damage to Broca’s area

Wernicke’s/receptive aphasia

the inability to understand sounds/create meaningful speech nor understand language after damage to Wernicke’s area

hindbrain

located at the bottom of the brain, made up of cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata

cerebellum

controls muscle movement, motor functions, and balance/coordination, also helps the body remember how to perform repeated/practiced actions (if damaged a person will be unbalanced)

walking a tightrope, balancing a BELL

medulla oblongata

controls involuntary actions such as breathing

pons

a bridge that passes route information from one brain region to another, implicated in REM sleep, connects medulla oblongata with cerebellum

midbrain

responsible for visual and auditory information

tectum

root of the brain that governs visual and auditory reflexes

tegmentum

floor of the brain that governs visual and auditory reflexes

brainstem

controls autonomic activities (damaged brainstem leads to death)

reticular formation

involved in arousal, alertness, and sleep-wake cycles, is a network of nerves that goes from the midbrain and down the brainstem (damage leads to coma)

reticular activating system (RAS)

filters incoming stimuli and relays important information to higher centers of the brain

forebrain

largest part of the brain, in charge of voluntary functions and complex thought/behavior, contains the limbic system

thalamus

receives and directs all sensory information except smell

you thalaMUST use your thalamus unless its musty

hippocampus

involved in processing and integrating memories (damage prevents the ability to form new memories)

if you saw a hippo on campus you’d remember it

anterograde amnesia

the inability to form new memories

amygdala

involved with emotional regulation, particularly in the expression of anger, fear, and anxiety

“Amy, da! You’re so emotional!”

hypothalamus

controls the pituitary gland, autonomic functions, and basic drives (hunger and sex), orchestrates the activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system, keeps the body balanced

lateral hypothalamus

“on switch” for eating, regulates eating behaviors and body weight

ventromedial hypothalamus

“off switch” for eating, regulates eating behaviors and body weight

lateral lesion

leads to decreased hunger drive and self-starvation

L ess food

ventromedial lesion

causes obesity and overeating

V ery much food

lesion

destruction of brain tissue

cerebral cortex

higher order cognitive processes (thinking, language), outer portion of the brain, includes sensory and motor cortex

sensory cortex

receives sensory input

motor cortex

sends out motor information, right side of this controls the right side of the body, left side of this controls the left side of the body

corpus callosum

connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres

association areas

responsible for associating information with sensory and motor cortices, cerebral cortex is mostly composed of these, damage to this can lead to apraxia, agnosia, alexia, or agraphia

apraxia

inability to organize movement

agnosia

difficulty processing sensory input

alexia

inability to read

agraphia

inability to write

frontal lobe

higher-order thinking and reasoning (memory forming, movement, judgement, solving problems, making plans)

parietal lobe

receives sensory information, somatosensory cortex is here, receives information about temperature, pressure, texture, and pain