AP Psychology Final Review Sheet

Nature

The genetic or hereditary influences on an individual's development and behavior

Nurture

The environmental and external factors that influence development and behavior

Empirical approach

The process of acquiring knowledge through direct observation and experimentation

Confirmation bias

The tendency to listen to and use information that confirms existing beliefs or values, while ignoring information that contradicts them

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning the outcome of an event, that one could have accurately predicted that outcome beforehand, known as the "I knew it all along" phenomenon

Eclectic approach

An approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy

Behavioral approach

Focuses on observable and measurable behaviors and how they are learned through interactions with the environment

Biological approach

Focuses on genetics, brain structure and function, neurotransmitters, hormones, and other biological factors

Cognitive approach

Focuses on mental processes like thinking, memory, and problem solving

Evolutionary approach

Explains human thoughts and behaviors through the lens of natural selection and evolutionary biology

Humanistic approach

Focuses on individual potential, self awareness, and personal growth

Psychodynamic approach

Examines the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences in shaping personality

Sociocultural Approach

Focuses on the influence of social and cultural environments on an individual's behavior, thoughts, and emotions

Experimental research

Researchers use controlled experiments to investigate cause and effect relationships

Case study

A descriptive research approach that involves an in depth analysis of a specific individual, group, or phenomenon

Correlational research

A non experimental research method that explores the relationships between two or more variables without manipulating them

Meta Analysis

Combines the results of multiple independent studies on a specific topic to arrive at an overall conclusion

Naturalistic observation

A research method where researchers observe subjects in their natural environment without intervening or manipulating their behavior

Operational definition of variables

Specifies how a variable is observed and measured in a specific study

Independent variable

A factor that is manipulated or changed by the researcher in an experiment to observe its effect on another variable

Dependent variable

The outcome or effect that a researcher measures in a study to see if it's influenced by the independent variable

Statistical significance

The probability that a research outcome is not due to random chance or sampling error

Effect size

A statistical measure that quantifies the strength of a relationship between variables or the difference between groups

Frontal lobe

A region of the brain located at the front of the cerebral cortex; Motor control, higher level thinking

Parietal lobe

A region of the brain primarily responsible for processing somatosensory information, including touch, pain, temperature, and joint position

Temporal lobe

A region of the brain located in the lower part of the cerebral cortex, behind the ears; Processes auditory information

Occipital lobe

The region of the brain located at the back of the head and is primarily responsible for visual processing

Somatic nervous system

A part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for voluntary muscle movement and the processing of sensory information, including touch, pain, and temperature

Sympathetic nervous system

A part of the autonomic nervous system that primarily prepares the body for the "fight or flight" response during stressful or dangerous situations

Medulla

The lowest part of the brainstem, located at the base of the brain It's responsible for controlling basic life sustaining functions like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure

Amygdala

Structure within the brain's limbic system, primarily responsible for processing emotional information, particularly fear and emotional memories

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter primarily known for its role in the brain's reward system, influencing feelings of pleasure, motivation, and reinforcement of behaviors

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in muscle movement and also influences memory, motivation, and arousal

Physical dependence

The body needs a substance to function normally, leading to unpleasant physical symptoms when use is discontinued

Psychological dependence

The cognitive and emotional state of needing a substance to function normally, even if the body isn't physically addicted

Agonist

A substance that binds to a receptor in the brain and mimics the action of a naturally occurring neurotransmitter, enhancing its effects

Antagonist

A substance that binds to a synaptic receptor and blocks or inhibits the normal activity of a neurotransmitter, effectively decreasing its effect

Preconscious level

Information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but can be easily recalled or brought into consciousness when needed

Unconscious level

Below the level of conscious awareness, contains thoughts, feelings, memories, and desires that are not readily accessible to introspection

Circadian rhythm

An internal biological clock that regulates a wide range of physiological functions, including sleep wake cycles, body temperature, and hormone levels over a 24 hour period

Beta waves

Fast, high frequency brain waves, typically associated with waking consciousness, active thinking, and alertness

Delta waves

Slow, low frequency brain waves, primarily found during deep, slow wave sleep

Activation Synthesis

Dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity, particularly during REM sleep

Absolute threshold

The minimum amount of a stimulus needed for a person to detect it 50% of the time

Just noticeable difference

The smallest detectable change in a stimulus that can be consistently noticed 50% of the time

Sensory adaptation

The process where our sensory receptors decrease their sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time

Schemas

A cognitive framework or mental model that helps organize and interpret information

Bottom Up processing

A mental process where individuals form interpretations solely based on the environmental stimuli they encounter

Top Down processing

The cognitive process of using prior knowledge, experience, and expectations to interpret new information or stimuli

Sensorineural deafness

Hearing loss that results from damage to the hair cells in the cochlea or to the auditory nerve, caused by aging, permanent

Conduction deafness

Sound waves are blocked from reaching the inner ear, typically due to issues in the outer or middle ear, often reversible

Volley theory

The idea that groups of neurons can work together to perceive sounds at frequencies beyond their individual firing rates

Olfactory system

The sensory system responsible for the sense of smell

Transduction

The conversion of one form of energy into another, specifically in the context of sensory information

Rods

Responsible for night vision and detecting movement

Cones

Responsible for color vision and detail, particularly in bright light

Trichromatic theory

The human eye contains three types of cone cells, each sensitive to different wavelengths of light, primarily red, green, and blue

Opponent process theory

Color vision is enabled by opposing retinal processes (red and green, yellow and blue, white and black)

A Delta fibers

Transmit sharp, localized pain signals

C fibers

Conveys dull, aching, or burning pain and temperature sensations

Vestibular sense

The sensory system responsible for providing information about movement, spatial orientation, and balance

Kinesthesia

The body's awareness of its position and movement

Prosopagnosia

The inability to recognize faces, despite having the ability to perceive other visual details and maintain intact memory

Assimilation

The process of incorporating new information or experiences into existing cognitive structures, or schemas

Accommodation

The process of adjusting existing cognitive schemas to incorporate new information or experiences

Representative heuristic

People categorize objects or events based on how similar they are to known categories or prototypes

Availability heuristic

People estimate the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind

Anchoring heuristic

People tend to rely heavily on an initial piece of information when making decisions and then adjust their estimates from there, may slightly sway opinion

Belief perseverance

The tendency to maintain a belief even after being presented with evidence that contradicts it

Divergent thinking

Explores multiple ideas and possibilities to solve a problem or generate creative solutions

Convergent thinking

Uses logical reasoning and established rules to narrow down possibilities and arrive at a single, well defined solution

Crystallized intelligence

Refers to the knowledge and skills acquired through learning and experience over time, Increases with age

Fluid intelligence

Involves the ability to think abstractly, solve new problems, and adapt to unfamiliar situations, Peaks in early adulthood and tends to decline with age

Explicit memory

Refers to conscious, intentional recall of facts and events

Implicit memory

Refers to unconscious, automatic recall of skills and habits

Procedural memory

Focuses on "how to" knowledge, like riding a bike or typing, often implicit and automatic

Working memory

Temporary, limited capacity system for holding and manipulating information, essential for reasoning and decision making

Retrograde amnesia

Inability to access past memories

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to form new memories

Context Dependent memory

Enhanced recall of information when the physical environment at the time of learning matches the environment at the time of recall

State Dependent memory

Enhanced recall of information when the internal or physical state at the time of learning matches the state at the time of recall

Proactive interference

Previously learned information makes it harder to learn new information

Retroactive interference

Newly learned information disrupts the recall of older information

Id

Part of the personality driven by pleasure

Superego

Acts as a moral compass, guiding behavior based on internalized societal norms

Self actualizing tendency

The innate human motivation to grow, develop, and reach one's full potential

Reciprocal determinism

An individual's behavior, internal cognitive processes, and environment all influence and are influenced by each other

Central traits

The fundamental, core characteristics that define a person's personality

Secondary traits

The less consistent and situation specific preferences or attitudes

Intrinsic motivation

Stems from internal rewards like personal satisfaction or enjoyment derived from the activity itself

Extrinsic motivation

Comes from external rewards like grades, money, or praise

Drive reduction theory

Explains motivation as the reduction of physiological needs or drives, aiming to restore homeostasis

Incentive theory

Defines how external rewards and punishments motivate behavior

Unconditioned response

Unlearned, natural reaction to a stimulus

Conditioned response

Learned behavior that occurs in response to a previously neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Positive reinforcement

Adds something desirable to increase the likelihood of a behavior

Negative reinforcement

Removes something undesirable to increase the likelihood of a behavior

Punishment 1

Adding something unpleasant to decrease a behavior

Punishment 2

Removing something desirable to decrease a behavior

Observational learning

A process where individuals acquire new behaviors, attitudes, or emotional responses by observing and imitating the actions of others