BIO FINAL FROM H E DOUBLE HOCKEY STICKS

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Fats, oils, and waxes

Fats, oils, and waxes are lipids, not amino acids.

Inference

A logical interpretation based on what scientists already know.

Competition

When organisms attempt to use the same limited ecological resources in the same place at the same time.

Solute

In a solution, such as saltwater, the substance that is dissolved.

Urbanization

Involves more people moving to cities and suburban areas, dense communities producing large amounts of waste, and if waste is not disposed of, it can affect air, water, and soil resources.

Asexual Reproduction

A scientist is studying plants that can reproduce individually, or all by themselves without a mate.

Enzyme Function

It must bind with the substrate, like a puzzle piece; otherwise, nothing will happen.

Weather

Consists of short-term changes in temperature, precipitation, clouds, and wind from day to day, or minute to minute.

pH

on a scale of 0 to 14, where 7 is neutral.

Primary Producers

All life depends on them, such as plants and algae, which form the base of the food chain and are essential for life.

Habitat

An area with a particular combination of physical and biological environmental factors that affect which organisms can live within it.

Population Distribution - Random

No set pattern to population.

Population Distribution - Uniform

Organized in a set pattern.

Population Distribution - Clumped

Population is around resources.

Ozone Hole

The cause of the is the use of CFCs, which have since been banned.

Electrons

carry a negative charge.

Microbiology

A scientist is studying the various viruses that have evolved from COVID-19.

Sources of Carbon

Burning fossil fuels, geologic activity, and cellular respiration all release carbon into the atmosphere.

Characteristics of Living Things

All living things are made up of cells, reproduce, and are based on a universal genetic code.

Greenhouse Effect

Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere allow solar radiation to enter the biosphere but slow down the loss of reradiated heat to space.

Food Web

consists of multiple interconnected food chains, allowing energy to flow through various paths.

Hypothesis Testing

Repeating experiments ensures reliability and accuracy of results.

Scientific Method Step

A scientist who is testing their hypothesis conducts an experiment to gather data.

Heterotrophs

Obtain their food by consuming other organisms.

Enzymes

Act as catalysts, speeding up chemical reactions within cells.

Hypertonic solution

The concentration of solutes outside the cell is higher than inside, causing water to move out of the cell, leading to cell shrinkage, a process known as crenation in animal cells.

Cell theory

States that all living things are made of cells, cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things, and new cells come from existing cells.

Isotonic solution

The concentration of solutes is equal inside and outside the cell, resulting in no net movement of water, allowing the cell to maintain its shape and size.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek

In the 1670s, He used his handcrafted microscopes to observe and document living microorganisms, which he referred to as 'animalcules.'

Levels of organization

Cells are the basic units of life. Similar cells group together to form tissues. Different tissues combine to form organs, and multiple organs work together in organ systems.

Hydrophilic

Means 'water loving.' substances readily interact with water molecules.

Hydrophobic

Means 'water hating.' substances repel water and do not dissolve in it.

Endocytosis

The process by which cells engulf substances by enveloping them in a vesicle formed from the plasma membrane.

Hypotonic solution

The concentration of solutes outside the cell is lower than inside, causing water to enter the cell, which can lead to the cell bursting, a process known as cytolysis.

Active transport

Requires energy (usually in the form of ATP) to move substances against their concentration gradient, from areas of lower concentration to areas of higher concentration.

Diffusion

A type of passive transport that does not require energy, as molecules move down their concentration gradient.

Total magnification

Calculated by multiplying the magnification of the eyepiece (usually 10X) by the magnification of the objective lens.

Crenation

The process of cell shrinkage that occurs when a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution.

Cytolysis

The process that can lead to a cell bursting when placed in a hypotonic solution.

Passive transport

The movement of materials into or out of a cell that does not require additional energy.

Concentration gradient

The difference in the concentration of a substance between two areas.

Microscope

An instrument used to observe small objects, such as microorganisms.

Animalcules

The term used by Anton van Leeuwenhoek to refer to the living microorganisms he observed.

ATP

(adenosine triphosphate) is the energy currency of the cell, used in active transport.

Eyepiece

The part of a microscope that you look through, typically providing 10X magnification.

Objective lens

The part of a microscope that provides additional magnification, such as 10X.

Chemical equation for photosynthesis

6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

Components of ATP

consists of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups; cellulose is not a component.

Autotrophs

Organisms that produce their own food, typically through photosynthesis.

Light-independent reactions output

The main output is sugar, specifically glucose.

Electron Transport Chain

Uses energy from electrons to pump protons through the membrane from the stroma to the inside of the thylakoid sac.

Pigments

Light-absorbing compounds essential for photosynthesis.

NADP and NADPH

Electron carriers; NADP⁺ accepts electrons and hydrogen ions to form NADPH.

Photosystem I

Re-energizes low energy electrons using light energy to produce NADPH.

ATP Synthase

Pumps hydrogen ions through the membrane down the gradient to synthesize ATP.

Light-dependent reactions

Require sunlight to produce ATP and NADPH.

Photosystem II

Where the light-dependent reactions begin, absorbing light energy to split water molecules.

ADP to ATP conversion

ADP gains a phosphate group to become ATP, a process known as phosphorylation.

Thylakoid membrane

The location where light-dependent reactions take place.

Calvin cycle

The light-independent reactions that use carbon dioxide to produce glucose.

Chlorophyll

A pigment that absorbs light energy for photosynthesis.

Proton gradient

Created by the electron transport chain, used to produce ATP.

Energy in cellular processes

The energy released from ATP is used in various cellular processes.

Photosynthesis

The process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods.

Glucose

A form of sugar produced during photosynthesis.

Cellulose

A carbohydrate that is not a component of ATP.

Light-independent reactions

Takes place in the stroma.

ADP

A compound that stores less energy than ATP; ATP is the primary energy carrier in cells.

Cellular respiration

A process that releases energy from food (typically glucose) in the presence of oxygen.

Stages of cellular respiration

Glycolysis → Krebs Cycle → Electron Transport Chain.

Glycolysis

Occurs in the cytoplasm; glucose is broken down into pyruvate.

Krebs Cycle

Takes place in the mitochondrial matrix; pyruvate is further broken down, releasing CO₂ and transferring high-energy electrons to carriers.

Product of Glycolysis

One molecule of glucose is split into two molecules of pyruvate (each containing three carbons).

Outputs of the Krebs Cycle

Produces carbon dioxide as a waste product and transfers high-energy electrons to carriers.

Cellular Respiration

Opposite processes; photosynthesis converts carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen using sunlight.

ATP yield from one glucose molecule

Approximately 36 ATP, distributed as follows: 2 ATP from Glycolysis, 2 ATP from Krebs Cycle, Around 32 ATP from Electron Transport.

Aerobic Reaction

Requires oxygen to proceed, as seen in the electron transport chain of cellular respiration.

Fermentation

Occurs in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic conditions) and allows cells to produce energy when oxygen is scarce.

The two main types of fermentation are

Alcoholic and Lactic Acid.

Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio

Smaller cells have a higher surface area-to-volume ratio, enhancing the efficiency of material exchange across the cell membrane.

Interphase Duration

Constitutes about 90% of the cell cycle, during which the cell grows and DNA is replicated.

Chromosome Structure Hierarchy

The DNA wraps around histone proteins to form nucleosomes, which coil and supercoil to form chromosomes, culminating in sister chromatids during cell division.

M Phase (Mitosis)

Where the cell divides into two identical daughter cells.

Sexual Reproduction

Involves two organisms contributing genetic material to produce diverse offspring.

Prokaryotic Reproduction

Reproduce asexually through binary fission, where the cell divides into two genetically identical cells.

Apoptosis

The process of programmed cell death that occurs when something goes wrong in the cell cycle.

Bacterial Reproduction

Reproduce asexually through binary fission, not sexual reproduction.

Phases of the Cell Cycle

The cell cycle progresses through G1 (growth), S (DNA synthesis), G2 (preparation for mitosis), and M (mitosis and cytokinesis) phases.

Cytokinesis

The final stage where the cytoplasm divides, resulting in two separate daughter cells.

DNA Copying in G2 Phase (Replication)

occurs during the S phase, not the G2 phase.

Cell Activity in S Phase

During the S phase, the cell replicates its DNA in preparation for cell division.

Discovery of Cyclins

Proteins that regulate the cell cycle, was pivotal in understanding cell division control.

Mitosis Phases

1 → Prophase, 2 → Metaphase, 3 → Anaphase, 4 → Telophase.

Meiosis

A type of cell division that results in four non-identical haploid daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes of the original cell.

Gametes

Cells produced by meiosis, such as sperm in males and eggs in females, each containing half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.

Crossing-over

Occurs during prophase 1 of meiosis, where homologous chromosomes exchange genetic material, leading to genetic variation.

Probability of inheriting dominant allele

If a man who cannot roll his tongue (rr) marries a woman who is heterozygous (Rr), their offspring have a 50% chance of inheriting the dominant allele (R).

Multiple alleles

A situation where a gene exists in more than two forms, such as in rabbits for fur color.

Codominance

A genetic scenario where both alleles are equally expressed, as seen in spotted chickens from a white and black chicken breeding.

Sperm cells

Cells that undergo meiosis to reduce chromosome number by half, ensuring that fertilization restores the diploid number.