Studied by 7 people
Who was Jean Piaget?
a Swiss developmental psychologist who studied how children develop psychologically as they mature
what did Piaget believe
children dont just know less than adults but actually think an entirely different way to adults
he believed that the way humans think is based on our human genes and interaction with the environment
what is constructivism
The view that humans generate knowledge from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas
what did Piaget call the basic building block of intelligent behaviour
schema
what did Piaget believe about schemas
all our knowledge of the world is stored there -we have different schemas for different things (can be simple or complex)
we are constantly using our schemas to make sense of the world
some schemas are innate, our schemas change and grow in complexity with experience
in what way did Piaget believe children were primed for learning
biologically
what did Piaget believe happened if we cant understand something
we enter a state of disequilibrium - which is very uncomfortable, and we want to return to equilibrium
how did Piaget believe we could achieve equilibrium
discovering and acquiring the new information we need to make sense of our experiences - making a new schema or adding to an existing one
what is assimilation
A form of learning that takes place when we acquire new information or a more advanced understanding of an object, person or idea. When new information does not radically change our understanding of the topic we can incorporate (assimilate) it into an existing schema
what is accomodation
A form of learning that takes place when we acquire new information that changes our understanding of a topic to the extent that we need to form one or more new schemas and/or radically change existing schemas in order to deal with the new understanding
how does equilibrium occur according to Piaget cognitive development theory
assimilation and accomodation
Strengths of Piaget's cognitive development theory
research support for the theory that some schemas are innate
research support showing that schemas are individual and vary between people
application and enducation
how is research support for schemas being innate a strength for Piaget cognitive development theory
Frantz (1961) showed that babies as young as four days old preferred looking at features of the face than jumbled up features. This means that this schema must be innate as they couldnt have learnt to recognises faces at so young
how is research support showing schemas are individual and vary between people a strength for Piaget cognitive development theory
Howe (1992) showed children formed individual schemas:
participants aged 9-12
groups of 4 investigated and discussed movement of an object down a slope
all increased knowledge, but their understandings remained different
how is application and education a strength for Piaget cognitive development theory
Piaget's theory that children construct their own schemas led to schools placing an emphasis on discovery learning with practical learning (so they learnt how things work and relate to each other)
limitations of Piaget's cognitive development theory
the role of other people is underestimated
how is the role of other people being underestimated a limitation for Piaget cognitive development theory
other theories see learning as a social theory, Piaget centered his theories on what the individual child was doing and saw teachers as minimally involved in setting up discovery activities but nothing more. However we are social species and much of our learning happens in a social context through social interaction. Not acknowledging this makes Piaget's theory incomplete
what debates are linked to Piaget's cognitive development theory
determinism nature and nurture nomothetic
how is determinism linked to Piaget's cognitive development theory
we keep information we have learnt in schemas. These schemas determine how well we lean new information. Some schemas are innate
how is nature and nurture linked to Piaget's cognitive development theory
human genes which means we use schemas to organise our knowledge + what our actual understanding is develops from our experiences
how is nomothetic linked to Piaget's cognitive development theory
general rules applied to all were used
how does Piaget believe development happens
in a sequence which is one process which includes all aspects of cognition developing together
what are the four stages for intellectual development in children according to Piaget
sensorimotor stage: 0-2 years
pre-operational stage: 2-7 years
concrete operational stage: 7-11 years
formal operational stage: 11+ years
what happens in the sensorimotor stage in Piagets intellectual development
from around 8 moths and completely by 18-24 months object permanence develops
what does sensorimotor mean in Piaget's intellectual development theory
sensori = physical sensation picked up by touch, sight, sound motor = learning to move and respond to the environment. As children move through this stage they become more masterful of and intentional with their movements
what is object permanence in Piaget's intellectual development theory
the understanding that things exist when they are outside direct observation by the individuals; that objects and people exist as separate permanent things
how did Piaget test for object permanence
hiding an object under a blanket
What were Piaget's findings from hiding an object to test object permanence
before 8 months 'out of sight out of mind'
from 8 months the infant would look for the object
how did Piaget test for incomplete object permanence
A-not-B error test
what did Piaget test in the A-not-B error test
babies are shown an object and see it repeatedly hidden under cloth A. They look for it under cloth A, then when it is hidden under cloth B the child continues to look for it under A. Past 1 years of age, babies do not tend to make this error
what did Piaget test at the sensori-motor stage
object permanence
what did Piaget test in the pre-operational stage (2-7)
conservation, egocentrism and class inclusion
definition of conservation
The ability to realise that quantity remains the same even when the appearance of an object changes.
what three areas did Piaget find were deficit in the pre-operational stage
number, mass and volume
how did Piaget test that children in the pre-operational stage were deficit in reasoning numbers
the adult set up two identical rows of coins; asks "are there the same number of coins or different?"
adult squashes one column; asks "same amount or different?"
child picked the squashed line as having less coins
how did Piaget test that children in the pre-operational stage were deficit in reasoning mass
adult sets up two identical columns of play doh; askes are they the same amount or different
adult squashes one column; asks if they are the same or not
child said squashed had a lower mass
how did Piaget test that children in the pre-operational stage were deficit in reasoning volume
adult sets up identical containers asks if theyre the same or different
adult pours one container into a container of a different shape and repeats the question
child picks the taller glass as having more liquid in
definition of egocentrism
The childs tendency to only be able to see the world from their own point of view. This applies to both physical objects - demonstrated in the three mountain task - and arguments in which a child can only appreciate their own perspective
definition of de-centre
being able to see something from anothers point of view by focusing on more than one aspect of the problem
how did Piaget test egocentrism
3 mountains task
what happened in the 3 mountain task
3 different coloured mountains on a board, children had photos of the mountains from different views. They had to match their own view and the dolls to the photo
definition of class inclusion
understanding that things can be put into categories or classes. Very young children understand that things can be placed into categories and are able to do this. However, they dont show an understanding that categories have subjects
how did Piaget test class inclusion
he showed that children aged 2-7were able to put a pug, Labrador and German shepherd into 'dog' category but could not accurately answer the question "are their more dogs or animals?" when shown a display of cats and dogs together
what did Piaget discover happened at the concrete-operational stage (7-11)
children have much better reasoning abilities (operations)
child can conserve, de-centre and understands class inclusion
child CANNOT think in an abstract way
how did Piaget show that children in the concrete-operational stage had concrete but not abstract thinking
if all yellow cats have two heads and I have a yellow cat, how many heads does it have?
children in the concrete operational stage get distracted by the fact that their experience tells them that cats don't have two heads so are unable to separate the content from the form
what did Piaget find at the formal operational stage (11+)
children become able to focus on the form of an argument and not be distracted by its content. This allows for scientific reasoning, logical argument and an appreciation for abstract ideas
strengths for Piaget's stages in intellectual development
supporting evidence for the biological basis for the theory
useful applications
how is supporting evidence for the biological basis for the theory a strength of Piaget's stages of intellectual development
there is a large body of supporting evidence for the theory of biologically driven stages in cognitive development
however...some evidence shows that children go through the stages at vastly different ages to others
Piaget suggests that the stages should be taken as rough estimates of the time when children go through the changes, and not fixed schedule. There will be individual differences
how is useful applications a strength for Piaget's stages of intellectual development
one long-lasting key idea is that the difference between the way children and adults think is qualitative
for real learning to take place, a child must be at the appropriate stage in development
so teaching a pre-operational child complex mathematical formulae will not be successful
this has informed primary school teaching. In 1967 in the UK, a hugely influential report on primary teaching was published - it was largely based on Piaget's work
limitations for Piaget's stages of intellectual development
the methodology is flawed
how is the methodology being flawed a limitation for Piaget's stages in intellectual development
in the conservation task the child may have though the answer was 'yes' as the adult changed something - so the child would be responding to demand characteristics
what type of theory is Vygotsky's
a social interactionist theory
what did Vygotsky focus on
the role of social interaction and culture in development of cognition - how the child internalises the understanding of others
How did Vygotsky's theory differ from Piaget
Piaget believed children drive their own learning, while Vygotsky believed that learning is facilitated by social interaction
Vygotsky saw the child as an APPRENTICE to a more knowledgeable other, Piaget saw the child as a SCIENTIST discovering things for themselves
also Vygotsky saw learning as a continual process rather than stages
definition of scaffolding
The process of helping a learner cross the ZPD and advance as much as they can, given their stage of development. Typically the level of help given in scaffolding declines as the learner crosses the ZPD
what was the role of scaffolding in Vygotsky's study
a more knowledgeable other 'expert' provides a supportive framework of instructions and guidance
the support is gradually withdrawn
what are some features used in Vygotsky's scaffolding
play: to maintain interest and participation
demonstration: show the child clearly what to do
talking: by the expert talking, the child is encouraged to do more and more of the process alone - verbal support/prompt/encouragement
examples of formal classroom activities that involve scaffolding
peer tutoring
teacher demonstration
use of writing frames
what is the goal of scaffolding
indipendence
what is the zone of proximal development according to vygotsky
the area between what the child can do unaided and what the child can learn to do with help - the difference between actual current ability and potential ability
how does scaffolding effect the zone of proximal development
scaffolding extends the childs abilities and allows the child to travel faster and further from their current ability level
why is language important in scaffolding and zone of proximal development in children according to Vygotsky
language enables a shift from elementary mental functions to higher mental functions
similarities between Piaget and Vygotsky
children are active learners
children learn increasingly complex skills as they get older
emphasise nature and nurture
differences between Piaget and Vygotsky
Piaget: - readiness (must be at appropriate stage)
happens in stages
views child as scientist (child builds own understanding) Vygotsky: - acceleration (through scaffolding)
continual
views child as apprentice (learns through scaffolding)
strengths for Vygotsky's theory
support for scaffolding
support for zone of proximal development
application in education
how is support for scaffolding a strength for Vygotsky's theory
Conner and Cross (2003) illisteated the gradual reduction of support from the expert in a longitudinal stud of 45 children
how is support for the ZPD a strength for Vygotsky
Roazzi and Bryant (1998) gave children 4-5 some sweets in a box and asked them to estimate how many there were
in condition 1 the children worked alone and in condition 2 they worked with an older child
in condition 1 the child failed to make a good estimate but in condition 2 got prompted by the expert so could master the task
how is application in education a strength to Vygotkys theory
a review of usefulness of teaching assistants (2005) found they were effective in students learning if well trained
limitations for Vygotsky's theory
individual experiences are ignored
how is individual differences being ignored a weakness for Vygotsky's theory
some children may not learn best through social interaction so the theory will not fit for all children
what debates are linked to vygotsky's theory
holistic: it studies the individual in their social and cultural context
nomothetic: large samples to create general law
deterministic: no free will as it states how children learn
what did Baillargeon do
she challenged Piaget's ideas about babies abilities in the sensorimotor stage, including object permanence
she tested babies understanding of object permanence and occlusion over many years, using violation of expectation (VoE)
What is the violation of expectation method?
VoE research involves showing babies something that they didnt expect to see happen, something which is impossible if you understand physical laws
they measure whether the baby is surprised by how long they look at the scene that is manipulated for them
what were the controls in Baillargeon's study
baby was positioned on an adults lap so they couldnt see the adults face - reduced demand characteristics
the person timing couldnt see the display, only the babies face - reduced investigator bias
strength of Baillargeon's theory
her research may give us a better understanding of infant capabilities than Piaget's
high control
how is her research possibly giving us a better understanding of infant capabilities than Piaget a strength for Bailargeon
Piaget has been criticised because perhaps in his studies babies looked away because they just lost interest rather than because they thought the object had ceased to exits
how is high control a strength for Bailargeon
babies were sat on their parents lap for the studies, but any influence from the parent was controlled by the parent closing their eyes and not interacting with their infant during the trials - therefore it was more valid as the baby were picking up less demand characteristics from parents
limitations in Bailargeons study
it is hard to judge what an infant understands
how is it being hard to judge what an infant understands a limitation for Bailargeon
just because the infant responds as if they understand physical laws, we cannot know that they really do understand them. we are making an assumption which may not be true. Responding to a physical event is not the same as reasoning about it
what debates in Bailargeons theory linked to
nomothetic: large studies to establish general laws - all humans have an understanding of physical laws from innate PRS
nature: PRS - gives innate understanding
nuture: builds on PRS through experience
determinism: biological (PRS), environmental experiences and hard determinism
less reductionism: lowest level, on simple factor
what does violation of expectation (VoE) mean
when an event happens that isnt consistent with the expectation of what should have happened - violates expectations
how did Baillargeon believe infants displayed that their expectations had been violated
the child would gaze longer, which the researchers took as their curiosity about their violated expectations
description of Baillargeons study
24 infants aged 5-6 months were shown 4 events of a rabbit passing behind a block
3 events were possible as the rabbit could move without being seen
one condition the rabbit was too tall to pass behind the block with a window and not be seen (violates expectations)
How did Ballargeon explain the reaction the babies displayed
infants are more interested in the impossible so would pay attention to impossible events to further develop their understanding of the physical world
what did Selman believe about perspective taking
the ability to see a social situation from another perspective
he believed this was a social (nurture) development not just a biologically driven cognitive on
much of our social functioning relies on perspective taking
what did Piaget's three mountain task test
physical perspective taking (the ability to de-centre and see someone else's physical point of view)
what did Selman propose about perspective taking
the ability to take others perspectives develop through 5 levels
the levels show an age-rated shift from egocentric view to a broader cultural/moral understanding of others point of view
what did selman believe about perspective taking skills
vitally important for all social behaviour, particularly pro social behaviour
children with poor perspective taking skills had more difficulty with relationships and were less popular
positive correlation between perspective taking skills and pro social behaviour
negative correlation between perspective taking skills and aggression
what are the 5 levels in selmans perspective taking
egocentric (3-6), social-informational(6-8), self-reflective(8-10), mutual(10-12), societal (12+)
what happens at the egocentric stage according to selman`
children may recognise that the self and others can have different points of view, but frequently confuse the two
what happens at the social informational stage according to selman
children understand that different perspectives may result because people have access to different information. Will not understand differences in opinion if information is the same, so not truly able to imagine a different point of view
what happens in the self-reflective stage according to selman
child can now view things from someone elses perspective in addition to their own and understands others are able to do this too. But they will only be able to consider one point of view at a time
what happens in the mutual stage according to selman
child can consider two peoples points of view at the same time
what happens in the societal stage according to selman
individuals understand that decisions are now made with reference to social conventions as understanding anothers point of view may not be enough to ensure agreement
how did selman use dilemmas
to study children's perspective taking - a dilemma is a problem offering possibilities, neither of which is unambiguously preferable
an example of selman using dilemmas
the holly dilemma
what did selman discover about perspective taking from the holly dilemma
he identified five distinct levels of perspective taking. He found that these correlate with age; higher levels enable better social functioning
what happened in selman's holly dilemma
imagine you are holly who is 8 and loves to climb trees
holly is the best tree climber in the neighbourhood, but one day she falls and hurts herself, so her dad makes her promise not to climb trees again
there is a kitten stuck up a tree and holly is needed to climb and get it or it'll fall - but it breaks her promis to her dad
strengths of Selmans perspective taking research
application
support for the progressive nature of the levels
support for the experience being an essential part of the process
how is application a strength of selmans perspective taking research
the application build on the previous strength: if perspective taking can be developed by experience then there are applications for schools and prisons. Selman believed that every primary school should aim to develop perspective taking in its children. social skills training programmes are used in therapeutic and prison setting to help develop perspective taking and improve peoples social skills and ultimately the quality of life
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