RA and Logical Fallacies

Appeal to Force

(the “Might-Makes-Right” Fallacy): This argument uses force, the threat of force, or some other unpleasant backlash to make the audience accept a conclusion.

Ad Hominem Fallacy

Attacking or praising the people who make an argument rather than discussing the argument itself.

Bandwagon Approach

“Everybody is doing it.” This argument asserts that, since the majority of people believes an argument or chooses a particular course of action, the argument must be true or the course of action must be the best one. “Whenever you find yourself on the side of the majority, it's time to pause and reflect.” --Mark Twain.

Appeal to Tradition

This line of thought asserts that a premise must be true because people have always believed it or done it.

Appeal to Improper Authority

An appeal to an improper authority, such as a famous person or a source that may not be reliable.

Appeal to Biased Authority

In this sort of appeal, the authority is one who truly is knowledgeable on the topic, but unfortunately one who may have professional or personal motivations that render that judgment suspect.

Begging the Question

The fallacy is committed when someone has made a conclusion based on a premise that lacks support. For example, stating that “chinaberries are good for people because they grow on trees.” The unsupported premise here is that things that grow on trees are inherently good for people. The most common form of this fallacy is when the claim is initially loaded with the same conclusion one has yet to prove. For instance, suppose a debater states, "Useless courses like Art 101 should be dropped from the curriculum." The debater then immediately moves on, illustrating that spending money on a useless course is something nobody wants. The fact that the course is useless is assumed without proof. The debater is implicitly “begging” the audience to go along with (to accept without evidence) this proposition. Another example: “Since killing is morally wrong, the death penalty is morally wrong.” Another example: “Cats, because they are filthy animals, should never be allowed in college dorms.”

Circular Reasoning

is a subtype of begging the question. Often the authors word the two statements sufficiently differently to obscure the fact that the same proposition occurs as both a premise and a conclusion. For example: A confused student argues: “You can’t give me a C. I’m an A student!” Another Example: “God exists. We know this because the Bible says so. And we know the Bible is correct because the Bible was written by God."

Hasty Generalization

Mistaken use of inductive reasoning when there are too few samples to prove a point.

Misleading Statistic

Suppose an individual argues that women must be incompetent drivers, and he points out that last Tuesday at the Department of Motor Vehicles, 50% of the women who took the driving test failed.

False Causality Fallacy: (Causation/Correlation Error)

This fallacy establishes a cause/effect relationship that does not exist. There are various Latin names for various analyses of the fallacy: "After this, therefore because of this." This type of false cause occurs when the writer mistakenly assumes that, because the first event preceded the second event, it must mean the first event must have caused the later one.

The Red Herring Fallacy

A red herring is a deliberate attempt to change the subject or divert the argument from the real question at issue.

Straw Man Fallacy

a writer creates an oversimplified, easy-to-refute argument, places it in the mouth of his opponent, and then tries to "win" the debate by knocking down that empty or trivial argument.

Slippery Slope Fallacy

the speaker argues that, once the first step is undertaken, a second or third step will inevitably follow, much like the way one step on a slippery incline will cause a person to fall and slide all the way to the bottom.

False Dilemma Fallacy (Either/Or Fallacy)

This fallacy occurs when a writer builds an argument upon the assumption that there are only two choices or possible outcomes when actually there are several.

Faulty Analogy

Relying only on comparisons to prove a point rather than arguing deductively and inductively.

Equivocation

Using a word in a different way than the author used it in the original premise, or changing definitions halfway through a discussion.

Stacking the Deck/cherry-picking

In this fallacy, the speaker "stacks the deck" in her favor by ignoring examples that disprove the point, and listing only those examples that support her case.

Argument from the Negative

Arguing from the negative asserts that, since one position is untenable, the opposite stance must be true.

Loaded Question Fallacy

Phrasing a question or statement in such a way as to imply another unproven statement is true without evidence or discussion.

Understatement

Where the speaker deliberately portrays the situation as less serious or important than it really is.

Paradox

a seemingly contradictory assertion that may have some truth in it.

Epithet

a descriptive word, phrase or title

Euphemism

using a more polite term for a coarse or unpleasant term

Conceit

an extended metaphor—often the basis for an entire poem

Metonymy/Synecdoche

 figure of speech consisting of the use of the name of one thing for that of another with which it is associated (“The white house said today”—meaning, the press secretary of the current administration said)

Alliteration

repetition of initial sounds

Onomatopoeia

the use of a word whose sound imitates the act or thing it names.

Objective

completely unbiased. It is not affected by the speaker’s previous experiences or tastes. It is verifiable by looking up facts. Generally, one cannot argue with an objective statement. 

Subjective

has been colored by the character of the speaker or writer. A subjective statement is an opinion; it often has a bias. Subjective statements are often the root of arguments and are “subject” to personal opinion.

Cliché

An overused statement or idea

Satire

Corrective ridicule

Parody

mocking imitation

Irony

when the literal meaning is the opposite of the actual meaning

Archetype

the original pattern or model of a character or idea that is frequently copied or repeated. Merlin, Gandolf, Dumbledore, obi wan kenobi: same guy, different names

Histrionic

deliberately dramatic or theatrical

Wry

cleverly and often ironically or grimly humorous. It technically means “bent,” like the smile of an ironic, clever person

Juxtapose/juxtaposition

an act or instance of placing things/words/concepts close together or side by side for comparison or contrast

Deductive

Reasoning that moves from the general (rule or law) to the specific (instance)

Inductive

reasoning that moves from the specific (instance) to the general

Anaphora

repetition of the initial word or phrase in a series of clauses or phrases for emphasis and rhythm

Epistrophe

The repetition of the same word or words at the end of successive phrases or clauses.

Aphorism

A pithy observation that contains a general truth, such as, “if it ain't broke, don't fix it.

Analysis

the separating of material into its constituent elements and determining its essential features and their relations

Argumentation

the act of using reasons to justify claims

Syllogism

a logical argument in which a conclusion is inferred from two premises. It’s a form of deductive reasoning. It goes like this:  (1) All dogs are mammals. (2) Mingo is a dog. (3) Therefore, Mingo is a mammal

Chiasmus

A rhetorical or literary figure in which words, grammatical constructions, or concepts are repeated in reverse order, in the same or a modified form. EX.“Poetry is the record of the best and happiest moments of the happiest and best minds.”

Ellipsis

omission of one or more words for conciseness and effect. Ex. “Youth is a blunder; manhood a struggle; old age a regret.”  (The word “is” is omitted after the first clause.)

Asyndeton

omission of conjunction before the last item in a series. Ex. “Government of the people, by the people, for the people…”

Allegory

a story in which things and people represent something entirely other—an idea or a philosophy. ___ typically contain within a moral or lesson.

Simple Sentence

subject-verb (I went to the store.)

Compound Sentence

2 independent clauses joined by a conjunction (I went to the store, and I bought candy.)

Complex Sentence

independent clause and dependent clause (While traveling to the store, I saw my friend.)

Antecedent

a word, phrase, clause, or sentence, to which another word (especially a pronoun) refers. “Mike lost his penguin and he can't find it.”

Nostalgia

a sentimental longing or wistful affection for the past.

Enumeration

the listing of things; to list one thing after another in prose.

Dichotomy

a division or contrast between two things that are or are represented as being opposed or entirely different. “There doesn't need to be a ____ between religion and science.”

Hypophora

Asking a question and then answering that same question. “What did you come here for? To learn how to have a good time!”

Rebuttal

merely a response to the counterargument, advancing your side of an issue--may not be effective, may not prove someone or something wrong.

Refutation

to use evidence to prove a counterargument is wrong--this is done in response to another argument. When a rebuttal is absolutely effective, it becomes a refutation.

Concession

acknowledging other points of view--admitting that the opposition has a good point. This builds credibility.

Message

(Rhetorical Situation Component): the subject matter of a work of rhetoric.

Exigence

(Rhetorical Situation Component) the provocation (or reason) to make the argument or work of rhetoric. Why did the writer give this speech?

Purpose

(Rhetorical Situation Component): what writer or speaker hopes to achieve by writing or giving a speech.

Audience

(Rhetorical Situation Component): awareness of the specific, intended audience of a work of rhetoric—awareness of the traits and perspectives of this audience.

Context

(Rhetorical Situation Component): The time, place, occasion, or other relevant contextual information about the moment of the work of rhetoric.

Writer/speaker

(Rhetorical Situation Component): Our awareness of how the writer or speaker’s perceptions, or perspective,  governs the text.

Connotation

The secondary, implied, or suggested meaning of a word; e.g., the word 'weasel' suggests negativity.

Denotation

The literal, actual meaning of a word; e.g., 'weasel' simply means a slender, carnivorous mammal.

Diction

A writer's or speaker's word choice (style); choosing 'lied about' rather than 'mistakenly stated' is an example

Syntax

The grammatical order in which words are placed; can be broken for effect.

Tone

The attitude the writer takes toward the subject; described with adjectives like angry, solemn, playful, etc.

Explicit

Directly stated; leaving no question about the meaning.

Implicit

Implied, but not directly stated; hinted at.

Infer

To deduce or conclude information based on facts or evidence rather than what is explicitly told.

Parallelism

Similarity of structure in related words, phrases, or clauses (e.g., 'Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more').

Periodic sentence/structure

A sentence that builds suspense by postponing the main clause until the end.

Cumulative sentence/structure

A sentence in which subordinate elements come at the end to call attention to them.

Balanced sentence

A sentence with two parallel elements set off against each other with equal form.

Antithesis

Opposition or contrast of words or ideas within a balanced sentence (e.g., 'Many are called, but few are chosen.').

Inversion

Reversal of normal word order, often for emphasis (e.g., 'Never should you forget who your boss is' or Yoda's phrasing).

Analogy/analogous

A comparison of similar things—usually using something familiar to explain something unfamiliar.

Qualification (in argument or logic)

A restriction in meaning or application (e.g., premises may work under one government but not another).

Logical Fallacies

Incorrect reasoning (often intentional) in argument; fallacies exploit emotional triggers in the audience.

Metaphor

A comparison not using like or as; something regarded as symbolic of something else, esp. something abstract.

Simile

A comparison using like or as.

Apostrophe

A dramatic address to someone not present (e.g., 'Oh, Charles Dickens, where are you now?').

Allusion

An indirect reference to something outside the text—usually another work of art (e.g., 'Don't be a Scrooge.').

Hyperbole

Obvious and intentional exaggeration—for rhetorical effect.