English Linguistics II - Cohesion

Flashcards on English Linguistics II, focusing on cohesion, grammatical cohesion, and lexical cohesion.

Lexical Cohesion

refers to links between the content words

'The dog chased the cat. The animal was fast,' the words 'dog' and 'animal' are related in meaning, helping to link the two sentences together."

Grammatical Cohesion

Based on grammatical units or structures.

"Sara loves music. She plays the piano every day," the pronoun "she" refers back to "Sara," linking the two sentences grammatically.

Lexical Cohesion

refers to links between the content words

'The dog chased the cat. The animal was fast,' the words 'dog' and 'animal' are related in meaning, helping to link the two sentences together."

Grammatical Cohesion

Based on grammatical units or structures.

"Sara loves music. She plays the piano every day," the pronoun "she" refers back to "Sara," linking the two sentences grammatically.

Grammatical cohesion(cohesive devices)

REFERENCE

SUBSTITUTION

ELLIPSIS

PARALLELISM

CONJUNCTION

TENSE/ASPECT

Lexical cohesion (cohesive devices)

REITERATION >

• repettion

• synonymy

• hypo-­‐/eronymy

• meronymy

• antonymy

• paraphrase

COLLOCATION >

• lexical fields

• lexical sets

Pro-forms(grammatical cohesion)

Short words that stand in for other lexical items, semantically referring to them.

I always thought it would be something a little more spectacular -­‐ an epic
battle with a hunter or a tiger. (cataphoric)

three directions in which pro-­‐form references may work:

1. exophoric

2. cataphoric

3. anaphoric

Exophoric Reference (directions in which pro-­‐form references)

Pro-form referring outside the text to the situation/context.

I always thought…

Cataphoric Reference(directions in which pro-­‐form references)

Pro-form referring ahead to a later item in the text.

it would be... an epic battle.

Anaphoric Reference(directions in which pro-­‐form references)

Pro-form referring back to an earlier item in the text.

This is how...

Semantic Types of Reference

1. co-reference

2. co-classification

3. co-extension

Co-reference(Semantic Types of Reference)

Items linked by a cohesive tie pointing to the same extra-linguistic referent.

Henry bought himself a new Jaguar. He practically lives in the car

Co-classification (Semantic Types of Reference)

Circumstances to which A and B refer belong to an identical class.

The kids were playing all kinds of games in that big hall. Some were into cards, there were plenty of chess boards, in one corner scrabble was set up

Co-extension(Semantic Types of Reference)

Two or more lexical items/phrases referring to something within the same general field of meaning.

Congress complained about the president’s plans to rebuild White House

Symantic types of pro-form reference

1. personal reference

2. demonstrative reference

3. comparitive reference

Personal Reference(Symantic types of pro-form reference)

Personal and possessive pronouns

Harry is a musician. He plays a piano. His…

Demonstrative Reference(Symantic types of pro-form reference)

Definite articles and demonstrative pronouns

This is how it’s going to be

Comparative Reference(Symantic types of pro-form reference)

expressing comparison, e.g., same, equal, different.

…something a little more spectacular ... Gettng hit by a car/not so
distinctive

Substitution + pro-form substitution(3)

the replacement of a word or phrase with a pro-form to avoid repetition, while keeping the same grammatical function in a sentence.

Pro-form substitution:

1. Nominal substitution

2. verbal substitution

3. clausal substitution

Nominal Substitution

replaces a noun phrase element.

all of them ... dedication, friendliness, responsiveness)

Verbal Substitution

'Do' replaces a complete verb phrase.

You wouldn’t drive a car without ABS. You’d be crazy if you did

Clausal Substitution

Adverbs that replace whole clauses.

Is this the car you saw parked at the dealer the other day? Very likely so/Probably not

Ellipsis + categories(3)

Parts of a sentence left out because they can be recovered from the context.

Categories of ellipsis:

1. nominal

2. verbal

3. clausal

Nominal Ellipsis

Core parts of a noun phrase that are left out.

We’ll park my car and take yours.(house)

Verbal Ellipsis

Parts of a verb phrase that are left out.
I have always supported you. Yes you have.

Clausal Ellipsis

A whole clause that is left out.

What are you going to have? I haven’t decided yet.

Parallelism

Clauses or sentences with similar or identical grammatical/lexical structures.

You can‘t overnight dedication. Friendliness can’t be crated up for shipment. You can’t move responsiveness with a fork lift.

Conjunction + forms of conjunctions(3)

a word that connects words, phrases, or clauses within a sentence.

I wanted to go for a walk, but it started raining.

Forms of conjunction:

1. coordinators

2. adverbs

3. prepositional phrases

Coordinators(Conjunction )

Conjunctions coordinating clauses.

(cf. subordinators), e.g. and, but, or

Adverbs (Conjunctions)

Adverbs expressing a broad spectrum of meaning.

e.g. then, however, besides

Prepositional Phrases (Conjunctions)

Prepositional phrases signaling semantic relations between clauses.

e.g. in spite of, as a result

Tense/Aspect

express time relationships across sentence boundaries, helping to create formal and semantic connections between parts of a text.

Eve jumped from the tree. She hit the ground only to realize that the bike she had parked there was gone.

• The past perfect ("had parked") shows that parking the bike happened before jumping and hitting the ground.

• This contrast in tense/aspect connects the sequence of events clearly across sentences.
  

Repetition (lexical cohesion)

Repeating a word or expression to build cohesive ties.

e.g. ‘Prime Minister Fukuda — Fukuda

partial recurrence

lexical morpheme is repeated in various lexemes

e.g. convince, convinced,
convincing, convincingly, convic>on

Sense Relations

Semantic relations between two or more words.

synonymy

antonymy

hyponymy

meronymy

Synonymy

Two words having similar denotational meaning within the text.

Antonymy

Two words having contrasting/opposite meanings.

Hyponymy

Words related through super- and subordination.

Meronymy

Words related through a part-whole semantics.

Paraphrase (lexical cohesion) + types

expressing the same meaning of a text or speech using different words, usually to make it clearer or simpler.

Types:

depending on the
sequence/direction of simpler expression and paraphrase

expansion

condensation

Expansion(Paraphrase )

restating an idea using more words or added details to make the meaning clearer, fuller, or more explicit.

... I always thought it would be something a little more spectacular -­‐ an epic battle with a
hunter or a tiger. Or a territory war with another family. Or a forest fire.

Condensation(Paraphrase )

expressing the same idea using fewer words by removing unnecessary details while keeping the core meaning.

The floorboards creaked, the plumbing whined and throbbed, doorhinges squeaked and
windows raGled in their frames. The noise was deafening

Collocation(lexical cohesion)

natural combination of words that frequently appear together in a language. These word pairings sound correct to native speakers and often can't be replaced with synonyms without sounding unnatural.

Lexical Fields
Lexical Sets

Place relators

shows the spatial relationship between objects or people, indicating location or direction in space.

(1) This summer I’ll visit Australia. My aunt lives there.
(2) His car has been in a crash. The front was ruined.

time relators

show the timing or sequence of events, indicating when something happens or how events relate in time.

(2a) Her operation seemed to have been successful. (reported time, ‘seemed to her’)
(2b) Her operation seems to have been successful. (reporting time, ‘seems to me’)