Methods in context complete

What practical issues influence choice of method?

• Time and money: Influences scale, eg large scale students cost more but are quicker

• Research opportunity: Not always possible to prepare intricate questionnaires/ methods as unforeseen opporunitys’s appear. Eg James Patrick was approached by a Glaswegian gang leader “out of the blue”, necessitating participant observation with no time to select methods

How does the practical issue of time and money influence choice of method?

Influences scale, eg large scale students cost more but are quicker

How does the practical issue of research opportunity influence choice of method?

Not always possible to prepare intricate questionnaires/ methods as unforeseen opporunitys’s appear. Eg James Patrick was approached by a Glaswegian gang leader “out of the blue”, necessitating participant observation with no time to select methods

What ethical issues influence choice of method?

• Informed consent: Research participants should be offered the right to refuse involvement, and informed of all relevant information. This may disincline covert research

• Vulnerable groups: Necessitates extra steps, eg to gain consent of parents as well as children when conducting research in schools. May lead to methods easier to regulate, eg structured as opposed to unstructured interviews

How does the ethical issue of informed consent influence choice of methods?

Research participants should be offered the right to refuse involvement, and informed of all relevant information. This may disincline covert research

How does the ethical of group vulnerability influence choice of methods?

Necessitates extra steps, eg to gain consent of parents as well as children when conducting research in schools. May lead to methods easier to regulate, eg structured as opposed to unstructured interviews

What theoretical issues influence choice of method?

• Validity: Produces a genuine and nuanced picture, often increased by qualitative methods such as participant observation as they give us deeper insights through first hand experiences

• Reliability/replicability: If it can be repeated, it can be more easily proved/disproved. Often increased by quantitative methods such as written questionnaires (which can be applied to many people and thus replicated)

• Representiveness: In order for our findings to be accurately applied to wider society, our sample has to be representative of wider society. Often increased by quantitative methods as they can equally applied to a variety of people (eg unstructured interviewer stereotyping of parts of the sample less easy in structured interviews than unstructured ones)

• Methodological perspective: Positivists prefer quantitative data as they see this as a more scientific approach, whereas Interpretivists prefer qualitative data as they seek to understand social actors and reject sociology as a science

How does the theoretical issue of validity influence our choice of methods?

Produces a genuine and nuanced picture, often increased by qualitative methods such as participant observation as they give us deeper insights through first hand experiences

How does the theoretical issue of reliability/replicability influence our choice of methods?

If it can be repeated, it can be more easily proved/disproved. Often increased by quantitative methods such as written questionnaires (which can be applied to many people and thus replicated)

How does the theoretical issue of representativeness influence our choice of methods?

In order for our findings to be accurately applied to wider society, our sample has to be representative of wider society. Often increased by quantitative methods as they can equally applied to a variety of people (eg unstructured interviewer stereotyping of parts of the sample less easy in structured interviews than unstructured ones)

How does the theoretical issue of methodology influence our choice of methods?

Positivists prefer quantitative data as they see this as a more scientific approach, whereas Interpretivists prefer qualitative data as they seek to understand social actors and reject sociology as a science

What factors influence choice of topic?

• Sociological perspective: Eg Feminists view gender as the defining issue, so are more likely to investigate it over class

• Societies values: Eg environmentalism of increasing concern to society

• Practical factors: Funding bodies are paying, and therefore will determine topic

How do sociological perspectives influences choice of topic?

Eg Feminists view gender as the defining issue, so are more likely to investigate it over class

How do societal values influences choice of topic?

Eg environmentalism of increasing concern to society

How do practical issues influences choice of topic?

Funding bodies are paying, and therefore will determine topic

Outline the process of research (hypothesis vs aim)

• Formulating hypothesis (theory that will be proved true of false), giving purpose/direction to our research, and develops cause and effect relationships (Postivists)

• Formulating aims (identifies what we intend to study), open-ended, allowing data to be gathered on anything that appears relevant that may not have been accounted for initially. Very useful for state of research topic (Interpretivists as social actors shows whats they thinks important)

Outline the process of research (operationalizing concepts)

Converting a sociological concept into something we can measure. Eg measuring class of student by parental occupation

Outline the process of research (pilot study)

Trying out version of study on smaller sample to iron out problems (eg rewording questions)

What is random sampling?

Sample selected at random. Large enough random sample should represent the character of the whole research population (eg if if you took a 10,000 people at random, its statistically likely 50% will be female, and therefore representative of wider society)

What is quasi-random/systematic sampling?

Every nth person in the sampling frames selected. Eg Willmott and Young used every 36th name on the electoral register

What is stratified sampling?

Population in sampling frame is stratified (eg by age, gender). The sample created is proportionate (eg 20% of sampling frame under 18, 20% of same is under 18)

What is quota sampling?

Same as stratified sampling, but each researcher given a quota to find a certain number of people themselves (eg 20 females and 20 males)

Why may non-representative sampling be possible?

• Practical reasons: social characteristics of research population unknown (eg age breakdown of Pygmy people of CAR)

• Theoretical reasons: Interpretivists see validity as more important, and therefore will priorities this over representativeness

Why may non-representative sampling be possible practically?

Social characteristics of research population unknown (eg age breakdown of Pygmy people of CAR)

Why may non-representative sampling be possible theoretically?

Interpretivists see validity as more important, and therefore will priorities this over representativeness

What are the alternatives to representative sampling?

• Snowball sampling: Contact a number of key individuals who suggest other people, and so on, adding in a Snowball fashion until enough datas collected. Useful with difficult to contact/identifiable populations such as criminals

• Opportunity sampling: Practically easier, eg passers-by in the street or class of pupils. Saves time and money

Whats Snowball sampling?

Contact a number of key individuals who suggest other people, and so on, adding in a Snowball fashion until enough datas collected. Useful with difficult to contact/identifiable populations such as criminals

Whats Opportunity sampling?

Practically easier, eg passers-by in the street or class of pupils. Saves time and money

What needs to be taken into account when researching pupil?

• Power and status: Children generally have less than adults, making it harder for them to state their attitudes openly. Overcome by methods such as group interviews, as they dynamic is shifted more in the pupils favour (as their is more of them) (theoretical)

• Ability and understand: May be less developed than adults. This means more attention needs to be put into the wording of questions, and informed consent (practical and ethical)

How does power and status need to be taken into account when researching pupils?

Children generally have less than adults, making it harder for them to state their attitudes openly. Overcome by methods such as group interviews, as they dynamic is shifted more in the pupils favour (as their is more of them) (theoretical)

How does ability and understanding need to be taken into account when researching pupils?

May be less developed than adults. This means more attention needs to be put into the wording of questions, and informed consent (practical and ethical)

What needs to be taken into account when researching teachers?

• Goffman (1969) - Impression management: Teaching require constant, impression management, manipulating the way people see them (due to constant observation by students). Therefore researchers may have to get round this by carrying out observations in places that don`t necessitate impression management eg staffrooms (theoretical)

• Power and status: Due to hierarchical nature of schools, teachers are used to being in positions of power, particularly in their own classrooms. Therefore interviews should take place in neutral spaces to equal the power dynamic (theoretical)

How does impression management need to be taken into account when researching teachers?

Goffman (1969) - Impression management: Teaching require constant, impression management, manipulating the way people see them (due to constant observation by students). Therefore researchers may have to get round this by carrying out observations in places that don`t necessitate impression management eg staffrooms (theoretical)

How does power and status need to be taken into account when researching teachers?

Due to hierarchical nature of schools, teachers are used to being in positions of power, particularly in their own classrooms. Therefore interviews should take place in neutral spaces to equal the power dynamic

What needs to be taken into account when researching in classrooms?

• Power and status: Classrooms usually dominated by the teacher, and students are encouraged to be repressed and submissive, leading to impression management (Goffman)

• Gatekeepers: Meighan and Harber (2007) identify that heads often view researchers as disruptive, and therefore negative, making access practically harder

How does power and status need to be taken into account when researching in classrooms?

Classrooms usually dominated by the teacher, and students are encouraged to be repressed and submissive, leading to impression management (Goffman)

How does gatekeeping need to be taken into account when researching in classrooms?

Meighan and Harber (2007) identify that heads often view researchers as disruptive, and therefore negative, making access practically harder

What needs to be taken into account when researching in schools?

• Schools own data: Schools are “data-rich” in secondary data due to exams, ofsted etc. This can practically save huge amounts of time and money. This being said, they may not always be reliable (eg if a school has a truancy problem these stats may be fiddled)

• Gatekeepers: Meighan and Harber (2007) identify that heads often view researchers as disruptive, and therefore negative, making access practically harder

How does schools own data need to be taken into account when researching schools?

Schools are “data-rich” in secondary data due to exams, ofsted etc. This can practically save huge amounts of time and money. This being said, they may not always be reliable (eg if a school has a truancy problem these stats may be fiddled)

How does gatekeeping need to be taken into account when researching schools?

Meighan and Harber (2007) identify that heads often view researchers as disruptive, and therefore negative, making access practically harder

What needs to be taken into account when researching parents?

• Goffman - impression management: present themselves in a positive light (eg exaggerate how much they read to children) which damages validity

• Access: Unlike student-teacher or peer interactions, parent interactions mainly take place in the private sphere of the home making practical access harder

How does impression management need to be taken into account when researching parents?

Goffman - impression management: present themselves in a positive light (eg exaggerate how much they read to children) which damages validity

How does access need to be taken into account when researching parents?

Unlike student-teacher or peer interactions, parent interactions mainly take place in the private sphere of the home making practical access harder

How do researchers effect research?

• Awareness of taken-for-granted: Researchers have spend years in school and university, dulling them to taken-for-granted assumptions

• Aware that their work can become part of a wider political/media debate, due to the conflicting views on equation (eg academisation)

How Laboratory experiments work?

Experimental variable isolated, to make “cause and effect” analyses easier. Control ground used to help varifying the “effect” was as a result of the “cause”

How are laboratory experiments reliable/replicable?

• Highly detached: Researcher merely changes the variables and records the results. Therefore no subject to personal opinion

• Replicable: Is formulated on a clear step-by-step basis, so can be easily repeated

What are the practical problems of laboratory experiments?

• Can only isolate things on small-scales, therefore cannot be used to investigate mass social phenomena such as religiosity

• Keat & Urry: Society is highly complex, making it impossible, let alone control all variables that might influence a childrens education achievement for example

What are the ethical problems of laboratory experiments?

Lack of informed consent: May be difficult to obtain from children who may be unable to understand the nature of the experiment

What are the theoretical problems of laboratory experiments?

Mead:

• In the natural science, chemicals respond to stimuli mechanically and automatically, making it possible to use laboratory experiments

• However, humans, rather than responding automatically, interpret its meaning, and then choose how to respond (eg we can never know how a motorist will respond to a red light, with see it as something to stop for, something to drive through, take a left to avoid it), making it impossible to establish cause-and-effect relationships

Explain the Hawthorne effect

The phenomenon where individuals modify their behavior because they know they are being observed

Whats an example of the Hawthorne effect?

Upon Elton Mayos (1927) study of the Western Electrics Hawthorne Works in Chicago it was found that workers improved performance simply due the presence of the researchers, as the output went up when he worsened, as well as improved the working conditions

What are the two alternatives to laboratory experiments?

• Field experiments

• The comparative method

What are the advantages of field experiments over laboratory experiments?

• Takes place in the subjects natural environment rather than artificial lab

• Those involved are generally not aware that they are the subject of research, preventing the influence of the Hawthorne effect

Evaluate field experiments

More natural, and thus valid, but are less able to control variables, increase the change of deeming false causations, and may be seen as unethical, as consent cannot be secured

Explain the comparative method

Works as a thought experiment:

1. Identify two groups that are comparable in all aspects bar one

2. See if this one difference has any effect

How can laboratory experiments be used investigate teacher expectations? (case study)

Harvey and Slatin used lab experiments to investigate whether teachers has preconceived ideas about pupils based on their social class:

96 teachers shown 18 photographs on children from different backgrounds (which were equally divided in terms of gender and ethnicity to act as a control), and asked to rate the children based on performance, parental attitude to education etc (w/c students got lower scores)

How can field experiments be used investigate teacher expectations? (case study)

Rosenthal & Jacobson(1968) random picked 20% of the students in a class, and told their teachers they were “spurters”. On return 1 yr later, 47% of those identified as “spurters” had made significant progress

What are the practical advantages of questionnaires?

• They are quick and cheap, allowing large amounts of geographically diverse data to be collected. Connor and Dewson (2001) posted almost 4k questionnaires across 14 higher education institutions for students in their study of class and university choice

• No need to recruit or train interviewers

• Easy to quantify if pre-coded, closed-ended questions are used

  Therefore cost effective, time effective, and are reliable due to their scale and geographic distribution

Which sociologist highlight the practical advantages of questionnaires?

Connor and Dewson - posted almost 4k questionnaires across 14 higher education institutions for students in their study of class and university choice

What are the theoretical advantages of questionnaires?

• Positivist sociologists see them as particularly beneficial as they can be used to test cause-and-effect hypothesis (eg by comparing answers to questions on family size and academic attainment to see if the former influences the latter

• Detached - less chance of right answerism. Even more so with postal or online questionnaires, no researchers present

• Repeatable

What are the ethical advantages of questionnaires?

• no obligation to answer intrusive questions (though this must still be made clear)

• Anonymity can be guaranteed

What are the practical disadvantages of questionnaires? (4)

• usually have to be brief to increase audience participation, limiting the validity and depth of information than can be gathered

• Without an in-person researcher, questions cannot be explained, damaging validity

• With postal votes, there is no guarantee the person whom it was addressed to completed it (could be parent instead of student for example)

• Inflexibly: Questions cannot be altered once they have been sent out, do emerging themes can`t be immediately pursued, in comparison with methods such as unstructured

What are the theoretical disadvantages of questionaries? (4)

• Interpretivists such as Cicourel (1958) their detached nature prevents Verstehen, and thus being able to understand and evaluate the subject, damaging validity

• Observational methods allow researchers to see what subjects are actually doing, where as questionnaires allow “right-answerism”, in which respectable answers are given as opposed to the truth, damaging validity

• Interpretivists such as Shipman (1997) argue they impose researchers meaning, rather than revealing those of respondents (eg by choosing the questions, the researcher has already decided whats important)

• Those that do respond may not represent society as a whole eg may be an older demographic that are retired and have the time to respond, compared to those of working age, thus skewing, and damaging the reliability of our results

Which sociologists highlight the theoretical disadvantages of questionaries?

• Cicourel - their detached nature prevents Verstehen, and thus being able to understand and evaluate the subject, damaging validity

• Shipman (1997) argue they impose researchers meaning, rather than revealing those of respondents

What are the practical advantages of questionnaires in the context of education?

Due to concentration of students/teachers due to the nature of school, easier to get large sample. Eg Rutter was able to get questionnaire results across 12 secondary schools to see how achievement was effected by class size

Which sociologist highlighted the practical advantages of questionnaires in the context of education?

Rutter - able to get questionnaire results across 12 secondary schools to see how achievement was effected by class size

What are the practical disadvantages of questionnaires in the context of education?

• Powney and Watts: childrens took questions more literally, and therefore questions must be developed differently. Particularly problematic with online/postal questions were no explanation can be given

• Response rates may be higher among m/c parents who are less time poor, higher among those whos English is a first language, less representative

• Response rate potential low for teachers, who are very time poor

What are the theoretical disadvantages of questionnaires in the context of education?

Evidence is often superficial, as questions have to be more simplistic due to nature of children. Rutter notes that although his questionnaires revealed correlations, they were not able to explain said correlations (lacked validity)

Which sociologist highlighted some of the theoretical disadvantages of questionnaires in the context of education?

Rutter - although his questionnaires revealed correlations, they were not able to explain said correlations (lacked validity)

What are the 4 types of interview?

• Structured/formal: Standardized, eg same set of questions to each interviewee, same order etc

• Unstructured/informal/discovery: Freedom to vary questions, order etc

• Semi-structured: Same set of questions, but can probe for more info

• Group: Not 1-to-1

What are the practical advantages of structured interviews?

• Training interviewers is relatively straightforward and inexpensive, as they just follow a set of instructions

• Due to their speed and cost effectiveness, they can cover larger numbers of people, increasing reliabiltiy

• Suitable for covering objective information such as age or job (why not done by questionnaire)

• Willmott and Young only saw 54/987 people refuse to take part in an interview, as face-to-face interactions are harder to turn down, increasing response rates

• Repeatable

Which sociologists highlight the practical advantages of interviews?

Willmott and Young, face-to-face interaction harder to turn down, increasing response rate, and thus representativeness

What are the practical disadvantages of structured interviews?

Inflexible

What are the theoretical advantages of structured interviews?

Positivists identify the fact that they are closed-ended as a positive, as it makes the data more quantifiable, making the identification of cause-an-effect relationships easier

What are the theoretical disadvantages of structured interviews?

Interpretivists such as Shipman (1997) argue they impose researchers meaning, rather than revealing those of respondents (eg by choosing the questions, the researcher has already decided whats important)

Which sociologist highlights the theoretical disadvantages of structured interviews? (interpretivist)

Shipman - argue they impose researchers meaning, rather than revealing those of respondents (eg by choosing the questions, the researcher has already decided whats important)

Which sociologist highlights the theoretical disadvantages of interviews? (feminist)

Graham - ee the interviewer-interviewee relationship as problematic, with the interviewers position of power (particularly over women) damaging validity

What are the theoretical disadvantages of interviews? (both structured and unstructured)

• As with any form of social interaction, interviewees may adapt their answers to what they believe the interview wants to here (right-answerism), decreasing validity

• Feminists such as Graham (1983) see the interviewer-interviewee relationship as problematic, with the interviewers position of power (particularly over women) damaging validity

What are the ethical advantages of unstructured interviews?

• Informality allows rapport to develop, allowing inerviewee to open up thus improving validity (eg in Dobashs study of DV, in which displaying empathy was essential)

• Lack of structure allows interviewee to discuss what they deep to be important, making data more insightful

What are the theoretical advantages of unstructured interviews?

Interpretivists like Shipman argue that they dont impose researcher meaning, with the lack of structure allowing interviewee to discuss what they deep to be important, making data more insightful

What are the practical advantages of unstructured interviews?

• If interviewees do not understand the question, they can ask for clarification, as can the interviewer for the interviewees answer, improving validity on both ends

• Flexible, as they are unrestricted

What are the practical disadvantages of unstructured interviews?

• Due to in depth nature, they take longer, adding problems of time and sample size

• Interviews need more training

• Interpersonal skills needed to develop rapport, something an researcher may not have

What are the theoretical disadvantages of unstructured interviews?

• Detachment - Ann Oakley stated that as a mother, she found it had to remain unbiased when interviewing women about childbirth

• Replicability

• Small sample - representativeness

Which sociologist highlighted the theoretical disadvantages of unstructured interviews?

Ann Oakley - stated that as a mother, she found it had to remain unbiased when interviewing women about childbirth

Which sociologist highlighted how the theoretical disadvantages of unstructured interviews could be overcome?

Becker - used aggression and “played dumb”, making teachers elaborate to expose information they may not have otherwise, reducing right-answerism

How can some theoretical disadvantages of interviews be overcome?

Becker (interviewing 60 school teachers for his study of teacher labelling) used aggression and “played dumb”, making teachers elaborate to expose information they may not have otherwise, reducing right-answerism

What are the practical advantages of interviews in the context of education?

Finding large enough sample is easy

What are the practical disadvantages of interviews in the context of education?

• Young people potentially less articulate

• Explanations of concepts may be harder

• Powney and Watts: childrens took questions more literally, and therefore questions must be developed differently. Worse in structured interview were question cant be explained

• Powney and Watts: the further down the school hierarchy the interviewee, the harder the access

Which sociologists highlighted the practical disadvantages of interviews in the context of education?

Powney and Watts:

• The further down the school hierarchy the interviewee, the harder the access

• Childrens took questions more literally, and therefore questions must be developed differently

What are the theoretical disadvantages of interviews in the context of education?

• Feminists such as Graham (1983) see the interviewer-interviewee relationship as problematic, with interviewers power reducing validity. Thus uneven power dynamic is made worse when participant is child

• Bell notes pupils may see interviewers as “teachers in disguise”. W/C parents may see questions are patronising

Which sociologist highlighted the theoretical disadvantages of interviews in the context of education?

Bell - “teachers in disguise”

What are the ethical disadvantages of interviews in the context of education?

In regards to safeguarding, 1-on-1 interviews are problematic when it comes to children (Head in Laceys studies allowed participant observation but not interviews without parent consent)

How can some of the practical disadvantages of interviews be reduce in the context of education?

Green and Hoogan: Tolerate longer pauses, use open ended questions to make it easier

Which sociologist highlight how the practical disadvantages of interviews be reduce in the context of education?

Green and Hoogan: Tolerate longer pauses, use open ended questions to make it easier

How can some of the theoretical disadvantages of interviews be reduce in the context of education?

• Bentley equalized by dynamics by showing children pictures of her “fooling around” with her daughter, normalizing herself. Simultaneously she tried to embolden children through positive affirmation, nodding and smiling as they spoke. However this can be hard to replicant

• Group interviews make dynamics more equal

Which sociologist highlight how the theoretical disadvantages of interviews be reduce in the context of education?

Bentley - equalized by dynamics by showing children pictures of her “fooling around” with her daughter, normalizing herself. Simultaneously she tried to embolden children through positive affirmation, nodding and smiling as they spoke. However this can be hard to replicant

How can some of the ethical disadvantages of interviews be reduce in the context of education?

Group interviews

What are the types of observation? (6)

• Participant: Takes part in actions of group

• Non-participant: Detached from actions of group

• Overt: Participants aware of researchers presence

• Covert: Participants not aware of researchers presence

• Structured: Pre-categorised observational schedules. Eg Flanders system of interaction analysis categories (FIAC), using a stand chart of 10 categories to record classroom interactions every 3 seconds

• Unstructured: Glaser & Strauss “bottom-up”/”grounded” theory, letting hypothesis present themselves from, and during the research itself

What are the advantages of structured observation in school?

• Practically: Relative simplicity means they are quicker, cheaper and require less training

• Theoretically: Positivists favour as they produce quantitative data, more reliable and replicable

What are the advantages of observation?

• Theoretically - Valid: Witness behaviour first hand, more likely to understand motivations behind them in natural environment (Verstehen - Weber)

• Practically: Good method to reach hard to access groups + flexible