The Roman Republic

Civilizations that populated Italy Pre-Rome

The Latins, the Etruscans, and the Greeks

Latins

An Indo-European group that was related to the Dorians that inhabited Italy in the Po River Valley. The area they lived in became known as Latium and they had children with primitive people, creating Latin Stock. This Latin Stock eventually became the Romans.

Etruscans

A seafaring people who inhabited Italy and had independent city-states with oligarchies. They borrowed Greek culture and the Greek alphabet and were obsessed with death and the good life. They also introduced better bronze work, fine black pottery, and chariots.

Greeks

A group who inhabited Italy and introduce their form of alphabet, religion, olives, and wine.

The Seven Hills

Each hill had a small village on it and eventually all of the villages united. However, the Etruscans conquered the area and put an absolute monarchy in place. Eventually, however, the area gained independence and became known as Rome.

Paterfamilias

The standard form of Roman family that were most commonly farmers. The father of the family had absolute authority over the rest of his family and after his death this power would pass to the oldest male figure.

Animism

The idea that everything has a soul

Vesta

The Roman goddess that was worshiped before they adopted and renamed Greek gods and goddesses. She was the goddess of the hearth.

Jupiter and Mars

Two notable Roman gods that derived from Greek gods. Zeus and Aries.

Immortality

An obsession of later Romans that was often promised by eastern mythical cults.

Laracium

A shrine inset into the wall of a home in order to protect it.

Virtus

Pillars of Roman culture that all were expected to abide by. Sometimes referred to as “manliness”. Examples include gravitas and dignitas.

Gravitas

“Gravity”; the Roman virtue indicating that people should understand the weight and importance of events and other matters.

Dignitas

“Dignity”; the Roman virtue of valuing oneself. This required eligible nobles to serve as a magistrate in the Roman government or a military officer.

Gender in Rome

Boys and girls were taught to read and write and women (normally nobles) could own and run businesses under the empire.

Concepts that the Romans borrowed from other cultures

Poetry and philosophy from Greece, the calendar from Egypt, and religion (the Cult of Mithra) from Persia.

Patricians

A social class in Rome. The wealthy citizens that could vote and pass laws.

Plebians

A social class in Rome. The middle class that were largely controlled by the patricians and were required to serve in the army.

Patrons

A wealthy, powerful Roman who did favors for people and would later exploit those indebted to them for favors.

Goals of the Republic and the Main Issue

All citizens have a voice and a division of power. However, only the rich could afford to participate in government.

The Conflict of Orders

The steps taken to ensure plebeian equality to the patricians. Includes the creation of the Tribune position, the creation of the 12 tables, the opening of the consul position to both patricians and plebeians, and the Tribal Assembly gaining the authority to pass laws independent of the Senate.

12 Tables

Originally, the plebeians were never informed of the laws in Rome as they were never written down. This was the first form of written Roman law that applied to both social classes.

Tribunes

Representatives of the plebeians that have a veto power over consuls, the Senate, and other officials. This position was created because the plebeians went on a military strike.

Slavery in Rome

All nationalities, races, and sexes. As many as 10,000 were sold at a time in large markets.

3rd Serville War

A series of slave revolts with the last being the most prominent. The slaves were lead against Rome by a man named Spartacus who was a trained gladiator. however, he did not have control over all the people he was leading and eventually lost to Crassus. All salve survivors were crucified along the Appian Way.

Conquered people in Rome

They all have money and troops to Rome and some areas were event granted citizenship. However, most were only granted partial citizenship, meaning that they couldn’t vote.

Legion system

The military structure that the Romans used due to what they learned from the Samnite Wars. Each was made up of subsections called cohorts, centuries, and maniples. The phalanx formation was only used in retreat or for defense.

Centurion

The officer in charge of a Roman legion

Gauls sack Rome

A war between the Gauls and Rome over Trade routes. The most notable defeat of the Romans was at the Allia river. Eventually, the General Camillus bribed the Gauls to leave Rome after invading.

Conquering the Samnites

A war between Rome and the Samnites over grazing lands. Famously, the Roman lost the Battle of Caudine Forks and were humiliated, but eventually were able to overwhelm the Samnites. This lead to Rome’s usage of the legion formation.

Rome conquers Greece

A Greek-adjacent King Pyrrhos ruled over Magna Graecia and fought against Rome many times, defeating them with elephants. However, he was eventually subdued by Roman and Carthage.

Pyrrhic victories

The winning of battles, but not the war. Phrase came to be because of King Pyrrhos’ victories against Rome but loss against them in the overall war.

Results of Roman Expansion

1. Conquered people paid taxes, supplied soldiers, and followed Roman leadership

2. Conquered people kept their customs, money, and local government

3. Some groups were offered partial citizenship, but most were only offered partial citizenship

4. Rome posted a network of soldiers throughout their conquered territory

Causes of the Punic Wars

Originally caused by a struggle over Sicily, but in the long run ended up being over control of Mediterranean trade. Furthermore, the Carthaginians worshiped the god Baal, and their religion required them to sacrifice children. This didn’t sit well with the Romans.

In-congruent powers of the Punic Wars

The Carthaginians had a very strong navy but Rome had a very strong army. Eventually, Rome wins because they have more soldiers and Carthage’s army is made up of mostly mercenaries.

1st Punic War

Rome beats General Hamilcar Barcus of Carthage in a naval battle, resulting in Rome’s victory. As a result, Rome gained control of Siciliy, Carthage was forced to pay a large indemnity (forcing them to hire more mercenaries, and Rome seized the islands of Sardinia and Corsica (leading to the second Punic War)

2nd Punic War

Caused by Carthage’s want for revenge and Rome trying to prevent Carthage from expanding into Spain and disturbing Greek colonies there.The Carthaginians are lead by the son of Hamilcar, Hannibal Barcus. He wins many battles against Rome such as the Battle at Trebbia River and the Battle at Lake tresimenus, but is eventually defeated by General P. Cornelius Scipio of Rome at the Battle of Zama.

The Battle of Cannae

Hannibal leads the Carthaginians against Roman Generals Paulus and Varro. General Varro did not want to fight against Hannibal but stayed in the Battle and died. Oppositely, General Varro wanted to fight Hannibal but abandoned his troops when the Battle got rough.

General Quintus Fabius Maximus

A Roman military leader who mimicked Hannibal’s movements across the Italian peninsula, earning him the nickname “the Delayer”. These tactics became known as Fabian tactics. Unfortunately for Hannibal, he was unable to break the Roman spirit with his habitation of Italy and refused to invade Rome while it was unprotected.

The Siege of Syracuse

Hannibal places siege on the Roman territory Syracuse, however Syracuse is able to withstand this siege because of Archimedes’ defenses. These defenses included chains that helped overturn Carthaginian ships and shields that supposedly reflected the sunlight and burned the sails (likely just blinded sailors)

The Battle at the Metaurus River

Hannibal’s brother, Hadsrubal, is defeated by the Romans and General P. Cornelius Scipio drives the Carthaginians out of Spain and launches a direct assault on Carthage, causing Hannibal to have to return home to protect it.

The Battle of Zama

P. Cornelius Scipio defeats Hannibal with some of his own tactics and thus forth becomes known as Scipio Africanus. Hannibal goes into hiding following this but shortly after commits suicide.

Results of the 2nd Punic War

1. Carthage loses Spain

2. The Carthaginian fleet is destroyed

3. Carthage pays a hefty indemnity for 50 years

3rd Punic War

A war largely influenced by Roman Senator Cato who, at the end of every speech would say “Cartago delende est!” or “Carthage must be destroyed!” This war ends in Carthage being burned to the ground, salt being sewn into Carthaginian fields, and all Carthaginian survivors were sold as slaves.

Overall results of the Punic Wars

1. Rome gains control of Spain to Egypt, Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica

2. Macedonia, Greece, and Asia Minor are all Roman provinces

3. Warfare changes. Because men do not return home for the planting season, women were forced to move to cities because they could not afford the taxes on their own. Cities couldn’t handle the population increase so slums and the Roman welfare system were created. “Bread and circuses” are created; free bread and gladiator fights for entertainment.

The Macedonian Wars

A series of four wars fought between Rome, who was allied with other Greek city-states, and the Antigonids, who were descendents of one of Alexander the Great’s generals. It eventually resulted in the end of Macedonian control in Greece, the burning of Corinth, and Macedon becoming a heavily taxed Roman Province (so much so that Rome stopped taxing their own citizens).

1st Macedonian War

Causing by King Philip V allying with Hannibal during the 2nd Punic War. However, the Roman Navy was able to block Philip V from meeting with Hannibal to give him supplies.

2nd Punic War

Caused by Rome’s want for revenge for the actions of King Philip V during the 2nd Punic war. At the Battle of Cynoscephalae, Philip V is defeated and Rome declares Greece free.

3rd Punic War

Perseus, son of Philip V, allies with the Seleucids and Rhodes to defeat Rome. He is, however, defeated by Rome and his nation is so heavily taxed that Rome ends taxation over their citizens.

Syrian War

A war between Rome and the Seleucids, descendants of one of the generals of Alexander the Great. They were lead by Antiokhos III but he is defeated by Scipio Africanus at the Battle of Magnesia. Hannibal took refuge with Antiokhos III, but later committed suicide.

Pergamon

King Attalos surrenders his city to Rome on his deathbed because he didn’t want his brother to inherit the throne. At this time, Rome continues to expand with Carthage now being a province. Furthermore, this marks the start of the empire as the Romans had control over Greece, Italy, Spain, part of North Africa, and parts of Western Asia Minor

Decline of political morality

A problem that lead to the end of the Roman Republic. Roman politicians, also being generals, began to lead their armies into territories for their own benefit. This caused many soldiers to be forced to keep with their legion and stay away from home for too long, causing many to go bankrupt and be forced to move into the city and increase unemployment rates.

The rise of the equine class and decline of the Roman farmer

A problem that lead to the end of the Roman Republic. Former cavalry men became rich outside of war through war profiteering. Meanwhile, the common farmer suffered due to a high mortality rate due to war, loss of farmland, and the employment of slave labor from larger farms (latifundia). This increased the unemployment rates for common farmers.

Decline of political stability

Due to unemployment, the gap between classes enlarges and the amount of people living in poverty and relying on the government weighs heavily on the administration. Two parties emerge from this; the Optimates and the Populares. Each opposed one another.

Latifundia

A large farm or estate that became more common during the fall of the Roman Republic and contributed to the unemployment of many plebeian farmers.

Optimates

A political party made up of conservatives that held the majority in the Roman Senate. They represented the patricians and contributed to the political instability that eventually lead to the fall of the Roman Republic.

Populares

A political party made up of liberals that advocated for social reform for the poor in the Roman Senate. They contributed to the political instability that eventually lead to the fall of the Roman Republic.

Tiberius Gracchi

A Roman politician who proposed laws regarding land redistribution and how much land one may own. He was supported by the lower class but was eventually murdered because he promised Italian allies citizenship and was the first politician to violate election laws by trying to serve for more terms than was allowed. This eventually lead to the distribution of free grain; government aid such as this is referred to as the Dole.

Gaius Gracchi

A Roman politician who placed the reforms of Tiberius Gracchi in place but eventually was also murdered for attempting to give Italian tribes citizenship. This eventually lead to the distribution of free grain; government aid such as this is referred to as the Dole.

Gaius Marius

A Roman politician supported by the populares who set the precedent that soldiers in Rome would be loyal to the generals rather than the state by awarding them land and money upon victory. Furthermore, in doing this he also made the army professional. He fought alongside a fellow politician, Sulla, to subdue an uprising of Italian tribes wanting citizenship.

Sulla

A Roman politician supported by the optimates. He waged a civil war against his political opponent, Gaius Marius. He was the first Roman general to use the army for political purposes and the first to march an army into Rome. He eventually became dictator for longer than allowed, which further weakened Roman political institutions.

1st Triumvirate

A group of three powerful men created following the death of Sulla. It included Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar. This undermined the power of the republic.

Pompey

A member of the 1st Triumvirate and protege of Sulla. He was the most powerful member of the first Triumvirate and he was part of the Optimates.

Crassus

A member of the 1st Triumvirate and the wealthiest man in Rome. He defeated Spartacus in battle twice and he was part of the Populares.

Julius Caesar

A member of the 1st Triumvirate and nephew of Gaius Marius. He was originally backed by Crassus financially but eventually gained wealth via political positions and his conquest of Gaul.

End of the 1st Triumvirate

Caesar was forbidden from entering back into Rome with his army, but does so anyway and raises many more legions. His enemy, Pompey is defeated by him at the Battle of Pharsalus and flees to Egypt. Pompey is killed by the boy King of Egypt and Julius Caesar form an alliance with Cleopatra to overthrow her boy-king brother. Caesar eventually destroys the rest of Pompey’s family and seizes control of Rome.

Rule of Caesar

Caesar rules as dictator for a year and then declares himself dictator for life, undermining the republican government and the term limits associated with the role of dictator. He broke the aristocratic control of the Senate but couldn’t stay in Rome long due to civil wars.

Reforms of Caesar

First to grant citizenship to provinces, adopted the Julian Calendar, decreased unemployment, stimulated trade and commerce, and began public programs to curtail the distribution of grain.

Assassination of Caesar

There were rumors that Caesar wanted to become king, making the senators fear losing their power. Roughly 60 senators, including one of Rome’s greatest orators, Cicero, took part in stabbing Caesar to death on a statue of Pompey.

2nd Triumvirate

A group of three powerful men protected by the Senate that was created following the death of Caesar. It included Marc Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus. This was an official government position

Marc Antony

Member of the 2nd Triumvirate and Caesar’s right-hand man. He was not a very smart man and often needed the support of Octavian’s private army. He also failed to enact Caesar’s will after death.

Octavian

A member of the 2nd Triumvirate and adopted nephew of Caesar who was the sole receiver of his inheritance. He at first supported the Senate over Antony, but changed his mind to get revenge for Caesar’s death.

Battle of Philippi

Antony and Octavian defeat Cassius and Marcus Brutus and those suspected of being part of the assassination plot that killed Caesar are killed.

End of the 2nd Triumvirate

The Triumvirate splits up land ownership; Antony controls Egypt, Greece, and the east, Octavian controls the West and divides Gaul between himself and Lepidus. Lepidus attempts to seize Sicily from Octavian and is defeated and forced to retire.

The Fall of Marc Antony

He loses power due to his marriage to Cleopatra and his loss of around 50,000 men in a sand storm making him less popular with the people. He and Cleopatra are defeated by Octavian in the naval Battle of Actium.

Rule of Octavian

Renames himself to Augustus, names Caesar a god, and takes on roles of other government positions besides the Senate. This marks the end of the Republic and the rise of the Empire. All Roman emperors thus forth take the name Caesar and Rome has a period of peace.