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What can babies distinguish in utero regarding language characteristics?

They can distinguish familiar voices from unfamiliar ones, familiar books from unfamiliar ones, and phonemes from their native language from non-native ones.

What is myelination?

The formation of a fatty sheath around the axons of a neuron.

What stage do infants reach cooing, and what characterizes it?

Cooing occurs at 2-3 months and is largely universal, not affected by language experience.

What is vocal play in infants and when does it occur?

Vocal play occurs at 4-6 months and involves modulating loudness and pitch; it's largely universal.

What characterizes canonical babbling in infants?

Occurs at 7-9 months; it involves vocalizations that sound language-like and typically includes identifiable phonemes and reduplication.

What happens to babies' ability to perceive phonetic distinctions after 8 months?

They start losing the ability to recognize phonetic distinctions not present in their native language.

What is apraxia?

A difficulty planning motor activity generally affecting articulation and/or prosody.

What are dysarthrias?

Difficulties executing and/or controlling motor activity.

What characterizes hyperkinetic dysarthria?

Involuntary movements added to normal speech production.

What are some features of hypokinetic dysarthria?

Resting tremors, hoarse and/or quiet voice, difficulty starting speaking, and flat prosody.

How does hyperkinetic dysarthria differ from hypokinetic dysarthria?

Hyperkinetic is due to overactivation, while hypokinetic results from decreased activation of dopaminergic pathways.

What is ataxic dysarthria often described as?

'Drunk' speech, characterized by irregular articulation problems.

What leads to spastic dysarthria?

Bilateral damage to the neurons that feed into the cranial nerves.

What is the effect of unilateral trigeminal nerve damage on speech?

No significant speech disorders may occur.

How does facial nerve (CN VII) damage affect speech?

Affects facial expression and control of the mouth/lips, leading to distorted speech production.

What are the characteristics of flaccid dysarthria involving the vagus nerve?

Vocals fold paralysis, diplophonia, monopitch control, hypernasality, and stridor.

What is nonfluent aphasia characterized by?

Non-fluent production and difficulties with understanding or producing complex grammatical structures.

What distinguishes apraxia from aphasia?

Apraxia involves difficulty producing words despite knowing what to say, while aphasia involves difficulties related to language that are not purely motor.